Cancer cell targeting using nanoparticles

ABSTRACT

The present invention generally relates to polymers and macromolecules, in particular, to polymers useful in particles such as nanoparticles. One aspect of the invention is directed to a method of developing nanoparticles with desired properties. In one set of embodiments, the method includes producing libraries of nanoparticles having highly controlled properties, which can be formed by mixing together two or more macromolecules in different ratios. One or more of the macromolecules may be a polymeric conjugate of a moiety to a biocompatible polymer. In some cases, the nanoparticle may contain a drug. Other aspects of the invention are directed to methods using nanoparticle libraries.

RELATED APPLICATIONS

This application is a continuation of U.S. application Ser. No.13/595,592, filed Aug. 27, 2012, which is a continuation of U.S.application Ser. No. 13/109,425, filed May 17, 2011, now U.S. Pat. No.8,273,363, which is a continuation of U.S. application Ser. No.12/059,496, filed Mar. 31, 2008, now U.S. Pat. No. 8,246,968, whichclaims the benefit of U.S. Provisional Application No. 60/976,197, filedon Sep. 28, 2007. The entire teachings of the above applications areincorporated herein by reference.

FIELD OF INVENTION

The present invention generally relates to pharmaceutical compositionscomprising target-specific stealth nanoparticles useful in the treatmentof cancer.

BACKGROUND

The delivery of a drug to a patient with controlled-release of theactive ingredient has been an active area of research for decades andhas been fueled by the many recent developments in polymer science. Inaddition, controlled release polymer systems can be designed to providea drug level in the optimum range over a longer period of time thanother drug delivery methods, thus increasing the efficacy of the drugand minimizing problems with patient compliance.

Biodegradable particles have been developed as sustained releasevehicles used in the administration of small molecule drugs, proteinsand peptide drugs, and nucleic acids. The drugs are typicallyencapsulated in a polymer matrix which is biodegradable andbiocompatible. As the polymer is degraded and/or as the drug diffusesout of the polymer, the drug is released into the body.

Targeting controlled release polymer systems (e.g., targeted to aparticular tissue or cell type or targeted to a specific diseased tissuebut not normal tissue) is desirable because it reduces the amount of adrug present in tissues of the body that are not targeted. This isparticularly important when treating a condition such as cancer where itis desirable that a cytotoxic dose of the drug is delivered to cancercells without killing the surrounding non-cancerous tissue. Effectivedrug targeting should reduce the undesirable and sometimes lifethreatening side effects common in anticancer therapy. In addition,targeting may allow drugs to reach certain tissues they would otherwisebe unable to reach without a targeted nanoparticle.

Accordingly, a need exists to develop delivery systems which can delivertherapeutic levels of drug to treat diseases such as cancer, while alsoreducing patient side effects.

SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION

There remains a need for compositions useful in the treatment orprevention or amelioration of one or more symptoms of cancer,particularly cancers that express prostate specific membrane antigen(PSMA), including, but not limited to, prostate cancer, non-small celllung cancer, colorectal carcinoma, and glioblastoma, and solid tumorsexpressing PSMA in the tumor neovasculature. In one aspect, theinvention provides a pharmaceutical composition comprising a pluralityof target-specific stealth nanoparticles that comprise a therapeuticagent; wherein said nanoparticles contain targeting moieties attachedthereto, wherein the targeting moiety is a low-molecular weight PSMAligand.

In one embodiment of the pharmaceutical composition of the invention,the nanoparticle has an amount of targeting moiety effective for thetreatment of prostate cancer in a subject in need thereof. In anotherembodiment, the nanoparticle has an amount of targeting moiety effectivefor the treatment of solid tumors expressing PSMA in the tumorneovasculature in a subject in need thereof. In yet another embodiment,the low-molecular weight PSMA ligand has a K_(i) of between 0.5 nM and10 nM.

In one embodiment of the pharmaceutical composition of the invention,the nanoparticle has an amount of therapeutic agent effective for thetreatment of prostate cancer in a subject in need thereof. In anotherembodiment, the nanoparticle has an amount of therapeutic agenteffective for the treatment of solid tumors expressing PSMA in the tumorneovasculature in a subject in need thereof.

In another embodiment of the target-specific stealth nanoparticles ofthe invention, the low-molecular weight PSMA ligand has a molecularweight of less than 1000 g/mol. In particular embodiments, thelow-molecular weight PSMA ligand is selected from the group consistingof compounds I, II, III and IV. In other embodiments, the low-molecularweight PSMA ligand is

and enantiomers, stereoisomers, rotamers, tautomers, diastereomers, orracemates thereof.

In other embodiments of the target-specific stealth nanoparticles of theinvention, the nanoparticle comprises a polymeric matrix. In oneembodiment, the polymeric matrix comprises two or more polymers. Inanother embodiment, the polymeric matrix comprises polyethylenes,polycarbonates, polyanhydrides, polyhydroxyacids, polypropylfumerates,polycaprolactones, polyamides, polyacetals, polyethers, polyesters,poly(orthoesters), polycyanoacrylates, polyvinyl alcohols,polyurethanes, polyphosphazenes, polyacrylates, polymethacrylates,polycyanoacrylates, polyureas, polystyrenes, or polyamines, orcombinations thereof. In still another embodiment, the polymeric matrixcomprises one or more polyesters, polyanhydrides, polyethers,polyurethanes, polymethacrylates, polyacrylates or polycyanoacrylates.In another embodiment, at least one polymer is a polyalkylene glycol. Instill another embodiment, the polyalkylene glycol is polyethyleneglycol. In yet another embodiment, at least one polymer is a polyester.In another embodiment, the polyester is selected from the groupconsisting of PLGA, PLA, PGA, and polycaprolactones. In still anotherembodiment, the polyester is PLGA or PLA. In yet another embodiment, thepolymeric matrix comprises a copolymer of two or more polymers. Inanother embodiment, the copolymer is a copolymer of a polyalkyleneglycol and a polyester. In still another embodiment, the copolymer is acopolymer of PLGA or PLA and PEG. In yet another embodiment, thepolymeric matrix comprises PLGA or PLA and a copolymer of PLGA or PLAand PEG.

In another embodiment, the polymeric matrix comprises a lipid-terminatedpolyalkylene glycol and a polyester. In another embodiment of thepharmaceutical composition of the invention, the polymeric matrixcomprises lipid-terminated PEG and PLGA. In one embodiment, the lipid isof the Formula V. In a particular embodiment, the lipid is 1,2distearoyl-sn-glycero-3-phosphoethanolamine (DSPE), and salts thereof,e.g., the sodium salt.

In another embodiment of the pharmaceutical composition of theinvention, a portion of the polymer matrix is covalently bound to thelow-molecular weight PSMA ligand. In another embodiment, the polymermatrix is covalently bound to the low-molecular weight PSMA ligand viathe free terminus of PEG. In still another embodiment, the polymermatrix is covalently bound to the low-molecular weight PSMA ligand via acarboxyl group at the free terminus of PEG. In yet another embodiment,the polymer matrix is covalently bound to the low-molecular weight PSMAligand via a maleimide functional group at the free terminus of PEG.

In another embodiment of the pharmaceutical composition of theinvention, the nanoparticle has a ratio of ligand-bound polymer tonon-functionalized polymer effective for the treatment of prostatecancer. In another embodiment, the polymers of the polymer matrix have amolecular weight effective for the treatment of prostate cancer. Instill another embodiment, the nanoparticle has a surface chargeeffective for the treatment of prostate cancer.

In another embodiment of the pharmaceutical composition of theinvention, said system is suitable for target-specific treatment of adisease or disorder and delivery of a therapeutic agent. In anotherembodiment, the nanoparticle further comprises a therapeutic agent. Inone embodiment, the therapeutic agent is associated with the surface of,encapsulated within, surrounded by, or dispersed throughout thenanoparticle. In still another embodiment, the therapeutic agent isencapsulated within the hydrophobic core of the nanoparticle. Inparticular embodiments, the therapeutic agent is selected from the groupconsisting of mitoxantrone and docetaxel.

In another aspect, the invention provides a method of treating prostatecancer in a subject in need thereof, comprising administering to thesubject an effective amount of the pharmaceutical composition of theinvention. In one embodiment, the pharmaceutical composition isadministered directly to the prostate of a subject. In still anotherembodiment, the pharmaceutical composition is administered directly toprostate cancer cells. In another embodiment, the pharmaceuticalcomposition is administered directly to prostate cancer cells byinjection into tissue comprising the prostate cancer cells. In yetanother embodiment, the pharmaceutical composition is administered tothe subject by implantation of nanoparticles at or near prostate cancercells during surgical removal of a tumor. In another embodiment, thepharmaceutical composition is administered systemically, or viaintraveneous administration.

In another aspect, the invention provides a method of preparing astealth nanoparticle, wherein the nanoparticle has a ratio ofligand-bound polymer to non-functionalized polymer effective for thetreatment of prostate cancer, comprising: providing a therapeutic agent;providing a polymer; providing a low-molecular weight PSMA ligand;mixing the polymer with the therapeutic agent to prepare particles; andassociating the particles with the low-molecular weight PSMA ligand. Inone embodiment of the method, the polymer comprises a copolymer of twoor more polymers. In another embodiment, the copolymer is a copolymer ofPLGA and PEG or PLA and PEG.

In another aspect, the invention provides a method of preparing astealth nanoparticle, wherein the nanoparticle has a ratio ofligand-bound polymer to non-functionalized polymer effective for thetreatment of prostate cancer, comprising: providing a therapeutic agent;providing a first polymer; providing a low-molecular weight PSMA ligand;reacting the first polymer with the low-molecular weight PSMA ligand toprepare a ligand-bound polymer; and mixing the ligand-bound polymer witha second, non-functionalized polymer, and the therapeutic agent; suchthat the stealth nanoparticle is formed. In one embodiment of thismethod, the first polymer comprises a copolymer of two or more polymers.In another embodiment, the second, non-functionalized polymer comprisesa copolymer of two or more polymers.

In an embodiment of the methods described above, the copolymer is acopolymer of PLGA and PEG, or PLA and PEG. In another embodiment, thefirst polymer is a copolymer of PLGA and PEG, wherein the PEG has acarboxyl group at the free terminus. In another embodiment, the firstpolymer is first reacted with a lipid, to form a polymer/lipidconjugate, which is then mixed with the low-molecular weight PSMAligand. In still another embodiment, the lipid is 1,2distearoyl-sn-glycero-3-phosphoethanolamine (DSPE), and salts thereof,e.g., the sodium salt.

In another embodiment of the pharmaceutical composition of theinvention, the nanoparticle has an amount of targeting moiety effectivefor the treatment of a cancer wherein PSMA is expressed on the surfaceof cancer cells or in the tumor neovasculature in a subject in needthereof. In one embodiment, the PSMA-related indication is selected fromthe group consisting of prostate cancer, non-small cell lung cancer,colorectal carcinoma, and glioblastoma.

In another aspect, the invention provides a stealth nanoparticle,comprising a copolymer of PLGA and PEG; and a therapeutic agentcomprising mitoxantrone or docetaxel; wherein said nanoparticle containstargeting moieties attached thereto, wherein the targeting moiety is alow-molecular weight PSMA ligand.

In another aspect, the invention provides a stealth nanoparticle,comprising a polymeric matrix comprising a complex of a phospholipidbound-PEG and PLGA; and

a therapeutic agent; wherein said nanoparticle contains targetingmoieties attached thereto, wherein the targeting moiety is alow-molecular weight PSMA ligand. In one embodiment of this stealthnanoparticle, the therapeutic agent is mitoxantrone or docetaxel.

In particular embodiments of the stealth nanoparticles described above,the low-molecular weight PSMA ligand is:

and enantiomers, stereoisomers, rotamers, tautomers, diastereomers, orracemates thereof.

In another aspect, the invention provides a targeted particle,comprising: a targeting moiety, and a therapeutic agent; wherein theparticle comprises a polymeric matrix, wherein the polymeric matrixcomprises a polyester, and wherein the targeting moiety is alow-molecular weight PSMA ligand. In one embodiment of this targetedparticle, the particle is a nanoparticle. In another embodiment, thepolyester is selected from the group consisting of PLGA, PLA, PGA,polycaprolactone, and polyanhydrides. In one embodiment of the polymericmatrix of this targeted particle, at least one polymer is polyalkyleneglycol. In certain embodiments of the targeted particle, the alow-molecular weight PSMA ligand is selected from the group consistingof folic acid, thiol and indole thiol derivatives, hydroxamatederivatives, and urea-based inhibitors.

In another aspect, the invention provides a composition, comprising: aparticle having an average characteristic dimension of less than about 1micrometer, the particle comprising a macromolecule comprising a firstportion comprising a biocompatible polymer and a second portioncomprising a moiety selected from the group consisting of a targetingmoiety, and a therapeutic moiety, wherein the targeting moiety is alow-molecular weight PSMA ligand, and wherein the targeting moiety hasan essentially nonzero concentration internally of the particle, i.e.,there is little to no detectable amount of the compound present in theinterior of the particle. In one embodiment of this particle, thebiocompatible polymer comprises poly(lactide-co-glycolide). In anotherembodiment of this particle, the polymer comprises poly(ethyleneglycol).

In one embodiment, the invention comprises a nanoparticle comprising alow molecular weight PSMA ligand, a biodegradable polymer, a stealthpolymer, and a therapeutic agent. In one embodiment, the inventioncomprises a nanoparticle comprising a low molecular weight PSMA ligand,a biodegradable polymer, a stealth polymer, and a therapeutic agent,wherein the nanoparticle can selectively accumulate in the prostate orin the vascular endothelial tissue surrounding a cancer. In oneembodiment, the invention comprises a nanoparticle comprising a lowmolecular weight PSMA ligand, a biodegradable polymer, a stealthpolymer, and a therapeutic agent, wherein the nanoparticle canselectively accumulate in the prostate or in the vascular endothelialtissue surrounding a cancer and wherein the nanoparticle can beendocytosed by a PSMA expressing cell. In another embodiment, theinvention comprises a nanoparticle comprising a low molecular weightPSMA ligand, a biodegradable polymer, polyethylene glycol, and achemotherapeutic agent. In another embodiment, the invention comprises ananoparticle comprising a low molecular weight PSMA ligand, abiodegradable polymer, polyethylene glycol, and docetaxel. In anotherembodiment, the invention comprises a nanoparticle comprising a lowmolecular weight PSMA ligand, PLGA, polyethylene glycol, and docetaxel.

In one aspect, the invention provides a target-specific stealthnanoparticle comprising a therapeutic agent; wherein the nanoparticlecontains targeting moieties attached thereto, wherein the targetingmoiety is a low-molecular weight PSMA ligand, and wherein thetherapeutic agent is an siRNA. In another aspect, the siRNA molecule iscomplementary to tumor-related targets, e.g., a prostate tumor.

BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS

FIGS. 1A, 1B, and 2 show representative synthesis schematics for thetarget-specific stealth nanoparticles of the invention.

FIG. 3 is a representative schematic of a nanoparticle of the invention.

FIG. 4 demonstrates cell uptake of the nanoparticles of the invention.

DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF THE INVENTION

The present invention generally relates to particles, and, inparticular, nanoparticles, wherein the nanoparticles comprise acontrolled-release system for the targeted delivery of a therapeuticagent. One aspect of the invention is directed to a method of developingpolymeric nanoparticles with desired properties, wherein thenanoparticles contain a targeting moiety that is a low-molecular weightPSMA ligand. In one set of embodiments, the method includes producinglibraries of nanoparticles containing low-molecular weight PSMA ligands,wherein the libraries have highly controlled properties, and wherein thelibraries can be formed by mixing together two or more polymers (e.g.,ligand-functionalized polymers and non-functionalized polymers) indifferent ratios. One or more of the polymers may be a biocompatiblepolymer (e.g., homopolymer, copolymer or block copolymer), wherein thebiocompatible polymer may be conjugated to a low-molecular weight PSMAligand. In some cases, the nanoparticle may contain a therapeutic agent,e.g., a drug.

In one embodiment, the nanoparticle of the controlled release system hasan amount of targeting moiety (i.e., a low-molecular weight PSMA ligand)effective for the treatment of prostate cancer in a subject in needthereof. In certain embodiments, the low-molecular weight PSMA ligand isconjugated to a polymer, and the nanoparticle comprises a certain ratioof ligand-conjugated polymer to non-functionalized polymer. Thenanoparticle can have an optimized ratio of these two polymers, suchthat an effective amount of ligand is associated with the nanoparticlefor treatment of cancer. For example, increased ligand density (e.g., ona PLGA-PEG copolymer) will increase target binding (cell binding/targetuptake), making the nanoparticle “target specific.” Alternatively, acertain concentration of non-functionalized polymer (e.g.,non-functionalized PLGA-PEG copolymer) in the nanoparticle can controlinflammation and/or immunogenicity (i.e., the ability to provoke animmune response), and allow the nanoparticle to have a circulationhalf-life that is adequate for the treatment of cancer (e.g., prostatecancer). Furthermore, the non-functionalized polymer can lower the rateof clearance from the circulatory system via the reticuloendothelialsystem (RES). Thus, the non-functionalized polymer gives thenanoparticle “stealth” characteristics. In a particular embodiment, thestealth polymer is PEG. Additionally, the non-functionalized polymerbalances an otherwise high concentration of ligands, which can otherwiseaccelerate clearance by the subject, resulting in less delivery to thetarget cells.

By having targeting moieties, the “target specific” nanoparticles areable to efficiently bind to or otherwise associate with a biologicalentity, for example, a membrane component or cell surface receptor.Targeting of a therapeutic agent (e.g., to a particular tissue or celltype, to a specific diseased tissue but not to normal tissue, etc.) isdesirable for the treatment of tissue specific diseases such as cancer(e.g. prostate cancer). For example, in contrast to systemic delivery ofa cytotoxic anti-cancer agent, targeted delivery could prevent the agentfrom killing healthy cells. Additionally, targeted delivery would allowfor the administration of a lower dose of the agent, which could reducethe undesirable side effects commonly associated with traditionalchemotherapy. As discussed above, the target specificity of thenanoparticles of the invention will be maximized by optimizing theligand density on the nanoparticle.

Target-Specific Stealth Nanoparticles Comprising Polymers

In some embodiments, the nanoparticles of the invention comprise amatrix of polymers. In general, a “nanoparticle” refers to any particlehaving a diameter of less than 1000 nm. In some embodiments, atherapeutic agent and/or targeting moiety (i.e., a low-molecular weightPSMA ligand) can be associated with the polymeric matrix. In someembodiments, the targeting moiety can be covalently associated with thesurface of a polymeric matrix. In some embodiments, covalent associationis mediated by a linker. In some embodiments, the therapeutic agent canbe associated with the surface of, encapsulated within, surrounded by,and/or dispersed throughout the polymeric matrix.

A wide variety of polymers and methods for forming particles therefromare known in the art of drug delivery. In some embodiments of theinvention, the matrix of a particle comprises one or more polymers. Anypolymer may be used in accordance with the present invention. Polymersmay be natural or unnatural (synthetic) polymers. Polymers may behomopolymers or copolymers comprising two or more monomers. In terms ofsequence, copolymers may be random, block, or comprise a combination ofrandom and block sequences. Typically, polymers in accordance with thepresent invention are organic polymers.

A “polymer,” as used herein, is given its ordinary meaning as used inthe art, i.e., a molecular structure comprising one or more repeat units(monomers), connected by covalent bonds. The repeat units may all beidentical, or in some cases, there may be more than one type of repeatunit present within the polymer. In some cases, the polymer isbiologically derived, i.e., a biopolymer. Non-limiting examples ofpolymers include peptides or proteins (i.e., polymers of various aminoacids), or nucleic acids such as DNA or RNA, as discussed below. In somecases, additional moieties may also be present in the polymer, forexample biological moieties such as those described below.

If more than one type of repeat unit is present within the polymer, thenthe polymer is said to be a “copolymer.” It is to be understood that inany embodiment employing a polymer, the polymer being employed may be acopolymer in some cases. The repeat units forming the copolymer may bearranged in any fashion. For example, the repeat units may be arrangedin a random order, in an alternating order, or as a “block” copolymer,i.e., comprising one or more regions each comprising a first repeat unit(e.g., a first block), and one or more regions each comprising a secondrepeat unit (e.g., a second block), etc. Block copolymers may have two(a diblock copolymer), three (a triblock copolymer), or more numbers ofdistinct blocks.

It should be understood that, although the terms “first,” “second,” etc.may be used herein to describe various elements, including polymericcomponents, these terms should not be construed as being limiting (e.g.,describing a particular order or number of elements), but rather, asbeing merely descriptive, i.e., labels that distinguish one element fromanother, as is commonly used within the field of patent law. Thus, forexample, although one embodiment of the invention may be described ashaving a “first” element present and a “second” element present, otherembodiments of the invention may have a “first” element present but no“second” element present, a “second” element present but no “first”element present, two (or more) “first” elements present, and/or two (ormore) “second” elements present, etc., and/or additional elements suchas a “first” element, a “second” element, and a “third” element, withoutdeparting from the scope of the present invention.

Various embodiments of the present invention are directed to copolymers,which in particular embodiments, describes two or more polymers (such asthose described herein) that have been associated with each other,usually by covalent bonding of the two or more polymers together. Thus,a copolymer may comprise a first polymer and a second polymer, whichhave been conjugated together to form a block copolymer where the firstpolymer is a first block of the block copolymer and the second polymeris a second block of the block copolymer. Of course, those of ordinaryskill in the art will understand that a block copolymer may, in somecases, contain multiple blocks of polymer, and that a “block copolymer,”as used herein, is not limited to only block copolymers having only asingle first block and a single second block. For instance, a blockcopolymer may comprise a first block comprising a first polymer, asecond block comprising a second polymer, and a third block comprising athird polymer or the first polymer, etc. In some cases, block copolymerscan contain any number of first blocks of a first polymer and secondblocks of a second polymer (and in certain cases, third blocks, fourthblocks, etc.). In addition, it should be noted that block copolymers canalso be formed, in some instances, from other block copolymers.

For example, a first block copolymer may be conjugated to anotherpolymer (which may be a homopolymer, a biopolymer, another blockcopolymer, etc.), to form a new block copolymer containing multipletypes of blocks, and/or to other moieties (e.g., to non-polymericmoieties).

In some embodiments, the polymer (e.g., copolymer, e.g., blockcopolymer) is amphiphilic, i.e., having a hydrophilic portion and ahydrophobic portion, or a relatively hydrophilic portion and arelatively hydrophobic portion. A hydrophilic polymer is one generallythat attracts water and a hydrophobic polymer is one that generallyrepels water. A hydrophilic or a hydrophobic polymer can be identified,for example, by preparing a sample of the polymer and measuring itscontact angle with water (typically, the polymer will have a contactangle of less than 60°, while a hydrophobic polymer will have a contactangle of greater than about 60°). In some cases, the hydrophilicity oftwo or more polymers may be measured relative to each other, i.e., afirst polymer may be more hydrophilic than a second polymer. Forinstance, the first polymer may have a smaller contact angle than thesecond polymer.

In one set of embodiments, a polymer (e.g., copolymer, e.g., blockcopolymer) of the present invention includes a biocompatible polymer,i.e., the polymer that does not typically induce an adverse responsewhen inserted or injected into a living subject, for example, withoutsignificant inflammation and/or acute rejection of the polymer by theimmune system, for instance, via a T-cell response. It will berecognized, of course, that “biocompatibility” is a relative term, andsome degree of immune response is to be expected even for polymers thatare highly compatible with living tissue. However, as used herein,“biocompatibility” refers to the acute rejection of material by at leasta portion of the immune system, i.e., a non-biocompatible materialimplanted into a subject provokes an immune response in the subject thatis severe enough such that the rejection of the material by the immunesystem cannot be adequately controlled, and often is of a degree suchthat the material must be removed from the subject. One simple test todetermine biocompatibility is to expose a polymer to cells in vitro;biocompatible polymers are polymers that typically will not result insignificant cell death at moderate concentrations, e.g., atconcentrations of 50 micrograms/10⁶ cells. For instance, a biocompatiblepolymer may cause less than about 20% cell death when exposed to cellssuch as fibroblasts or epithelial cells, even if phagocytosed orotherwise uptaken by such cells. Non-limiting examples of biocompatiblepolymers that may be useful in various embodiments of the presentinvention include polydioxanone (PDO), polyhydroxyalkanoate,polyhydroxybutyrate, poly(glycerol sebacate), polyglycolide,polylactide, PLGA, polycaprolactone, or copolymers or derivativesincluding these and/or other polymers.

In certain embodiments, the biocompatible polymer is biodegradable,i.e., the polymer is able to degrade, chemically and/or biologically,within a physiological environment, such as within the body. Forinstance, the polymer may be one that hydrolyzes spontaneously uponexposure to water (e.g., within a subject), the polymer may degrade uponexposure to heat (e.g., at temperatures of about 37° C.). Degradation ofa polymer may occur at varying rates, depending on the polymer orcopolymer used. For example, the half-life of the polymer (the time atwhich 50% of the polymer is degraded into monomers and/or othernonpolymeric moieties) may be on the order of days, weeks, months, oryears, depending on the polymer. The polymers may be biologicallydegraded, e.g., by enzymatic activity or cellular machinery, in somecases, for example, through exposure to a lysozyme (e.g., havingrelatively low pH). In some cases, the polymers may be broken down intomonomers and/or other nonpolymeric moieties that cells can either reuseor dispose of without significant toxic effect on the cells (forexample, polylactide may be hydrolyzed to form lactic acid,polyglycolide may be hydrolyzed to form glycolic acid, etc.).

In some embodiments, polymers may be polyesters, including copolymerscomprising lactic acid and glycolic acid units, such as poly(lacticacid-co-glycolic acid) and poly(lactide-co-glycolide), collectivelyreferred to herein as “PLGA”; and homopolymers comprising glycolic acidunits, referred to herein as “PGA,” and lactic acid units, such aspoly-L-lactic acid, poly-D-lactic acid, poly-D,L-lactic acid,poly-L-lactide, poly-D-lactide, and poly-D,L-lactide, collectivelyreferred to herein as “PLA.” In some embodiments, exemplary polyestersinclude, for example, polyhydroxyacids; PEGylated polymers andcopolymers of lactide and glycolide (e.g., PEGylated PLA, PEGylated PGA,PEGylated PLGA, and derivatives thereof. In some embodiments, polyestersinclude, for example, polyanhydrides, poly(ortho ester) PEGylatedpoly(ortho ester), poly(caprolactone), PEGylated poly(caprolactone),polylysine, PEGylated polylysine, poly(ethylene inline), PEGylatedpoly(ethylene imine), poly(L-lactide-co-L-lysine), poly(serine ester),poly(4-hydroxy-L-proline ester), poly[a-(4-aminobutyl)-L-glycolic acid],and derivatives thereof.

In some embodiments, the polymer may be PLGA. PLGA is a biocompatibleand biodegradable co-polymer of lactic acid and glycolic acid, andvarious forms of PLGA are characterized by the ratio of lacticacid:glycolic acid. Lactic acid can be L-lactic acid, D-lactic acid, orD,L-lactic acid. The degradation rate of PLGA can be adjusted byaltering the lactic acid-glycolic acid ratio. In some embodiments, PLGAto be used in accordance with the present invention is characterized bya lactic acid:glycolic acid ratio of approximately 85:15, approximately75:25, approximately 60:40, approximately 50:50, approximately 40:60,approximately 25:75, or approximately 15:85.

In particular embodiments, by optimizing the ratio of lactic acid toglycolic acid monomers in the polymer of the nanoparticle (e.g., thePLGA block copolymer or PLGA-PEG block copolymer), nanoparticleparameters such as water uptake, therapeutic agent release (e.g.,“controlled release”) and polymer degradation kinetics can be optimized.

In some embodiments, polymers may be one or more acrylic polymers. Incertain embodiments, acrylic polymers include, for example, acrylic acidand methacrylic acid copolymers, methyl methacrylate copolymers,ethoxyethyl methacrylates, cyanoethyl methacrylate, aminoalkylmethacrylate copolymer, poly(acrylic acid), poly(methacrylic acid),methacrylic acid alkylamide copolymer, poly(methyl methacrylate),poly(methacrylic acid polyacrylamide, aminoalkyl methacrylate copolymer,glycidyl methacrylate copolymers, polycyanoacrylates, and combinationscomprising one or more of the foregoing polymers. The acrylic polymermay comprise fully-polymerized copolymers of acrylic and methacrylicacid esters with a low content of quaternary ammonium groups.

In some embodiments, polymers can be cationic polymers. In general,cationic polymers are able to condense and/or protect negatively chargedstrands of nucleic acids (e.g. DNA, RNA, or derivatives thereof).Amine-containing polymers such as poly(lysine) (Zauner et al., 1998,Adv. Drug Del. Rev., 30:97; and Kabanov et al., 1995, BioconjugateChem., 6:7), poly(ethylene imine) (PEI; Boussif et al, 1995, Proc. Natl.Acad. Sci., USA, 1995, 92:7297), and poly(amidoamine) dendrimers(Kukowska-Latallo et al., 1996, Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci., USA, 93:4897;Tang et al., 1996, Bioconjugate Chem., 7:703; and Haensler et al., 1993,Bioconjugate Chem., 4:372) are positively-charged at physiological pH,form ion pairs with nucleic acids, and mediate transfection in a varietyof cell lines.

In some embodiments, polymers can be degradable polyesters bearingcationic side chains (Putnam et al., 1999, Macromolecules, 32:3658;Barrera et al., 1993, J. Am. Chem. Soc., 115:11010; Urn et al., 1999, J.Am. Chem. Soc., 121:5633; and Zhou et al, 1990, Macromolecules,23:3399). Examples of these polyesters includepoly(L-lactide-co-L-lysine) (Barrera et al, 1993, J. Am. Chem. Soc.,115:11010), poly(serine ester) (Zhou et al, 1990, Macromolecules,23:3399), poly(4-hydroxy-L-proline ester) (Putnam et al, 1999,Macromolecules, 32:3658; and Lim et al, 1999, J. Am. Chem. Soc.,121:5633). Poly(4-hydroxy-L-proline ester) was demonstrated to condenseplasmid DNA through electrostatic interactions, and to mediate genetransfer (Putnam et al, 1999, Macromolecules, 32:3658; and Lim et al,1999, J. Am. Chem. Soc., 121:5633). These new polymers are less toxicthan poly(lysine) and PEI, and they degrade into non-toxic metabolites.

A polymer (e.g., copolymer, e.g., block copolymer) containingpoly(ethylene glycol) repeat units is also referred to as a “PEGylated”polymer. Such polymers can control inflammation and/or immunogenicity(i.e., the ability to provoke an immune response) and/or lower the rateof clearance from the circulatory system via the reticuloendothelialsystem (RES), due to the presence of the poly(ethylene glycol) groups.

PEGylation may also be used, in some cases, to decrease chargeinteraction between a polymer and a biological moiety, e.g., by creatinga hydrophilic layer on the surface of the polymer, which may shield thepolymer from interacting with the biological moiety. In some cases, theaddition of poly(ethylene glycol) repeat units may increase plasmahalf-life of the polymer (e.g., copolymer, e.g., block copolymer), forinstance, by decreasing the uptake of the polymer by the phagocyticsystem while decreasing transfection/uptake efficiency by cells. Thoseof ordinary skill in the art will know of methods and techniques forPEGylating a polymer, for example, by using EDC(1-ethyl-3-(3-dimethylaminopropyl)carbodiimide hydrochloride) and NHS(N-hydroxysuccinimide) to react a polymer to a PEG group terminating inan amine, by ring opening polymerization techniques (ROMP), or the like.

In addition, certain embodiments of the invention are directed towardscopolymers containing poly(ester-ether)s, e.g., polymers having repeatunits joined by ester bonds (e.g., R—C(O)—O—R′ bonds) and ether bonds(e.g., R—O—R′ bonds). In some embodiments of the invention, abiodegradable polymer, such as a hydrolyzable polymer, containingcarboxylic acid groups, may be conjugated with poly(ethylene glycol)repeat units to form a poly(ester-ether).

In a particular embodiment, the molecular weight of the polymers of thenanoparticles of the invention are optimized for effective treatment ofcancer, e.g., prostate cancer. For example, the molecular weight of thepolymer influences nanoparticle degradation rate (particularly when themolecular weight of a biodegradable polymer is adjusted), solubility,water uptake, and drug release kinetics (e.g. “controlled release”). Asa further example, the molecular weight of the polymer can be adjustedsuch that the nanoparticle biodegrades in the subject being treatedwithin a reasonable period of time (ranging from a few hours to 1-2weeks, 3-4 weeks, 5-6 weeks, 7-8 weeks, etc.). In particular embodimentsof a nanoparticle comprising a copolymer of PEG and PLGA, the PEG has amolecular weight of 1,000-20,000, e.g., 5,000-20,000, e.g.,10,000-20,000, and the PLGA has a molecular weight of 5,000-100,000,e.g., 20,000-70,000, e.g., 20,000-50,000.

In certain embodiments, the polymers of the nanoparticles may beconjugated to a lipid. The polymer may be, for example, alipid-terminated PEG. As described below, the lipid portion of thepolymer can be used for self assembly with another polymer, facilitatingthe formation of a nanoparticle. For example, a hydrophilic polymercould be conjugated to a lipid that will self assemble with ahydrophobic polymer.

In some embodiments, lipids are oils. In general, any oil known in theart can be conjugated to the polymers used in the invention. In someembodiments, an oil may comprise one or more fatty acid groups or saltsthereof. In some embodiments, a fatty acid group may comprisedigestible, long chain (e.g., C₈-C₅₀), substituted or unsubstitutedhydrocarbons. In some embodiments, a fatty acid group may be a C₁₀-C₂₀fatty acid or salt thereof. In some embodiments, a fatty acid group maybe a C₁₅-C₂₀ fatty acid or salt thereof. In some embodiments, a fattyacid may be unsaturated. In some embodiments, a fatty acid group may bemonounsaturated. In some embodiments, a fatty acid group may bepolyunsaturated. In some embodiments, a double bond of an unsaturatedfatty acid group may be in the cis conformation. In some embodiments, adouble bond of an unsaturated fatty acid may be in the transconformation.

In some embodiments, a fatty acid group may be one or more of butyric,caproic, caprylic, capric, lauric, myristic, palmitic, stearic,arachidic, behenic, or lignoceric acid. In some embodiments, a fattyacid group may be one or more of palmitoleic, oleic, vaccenic, linoleic,alpha-linolenic, gamma-linoleic, arachidonic, gadoleic, arachidonic,eicosapentaenoic, docosahexaenoic, or erucic acid.

In a particular embodiment, the lipid is of the Formula V:

and salts thereof, wherein each R is, independently, C₁₋₃₀ alkyl. In oneembodiment of Formula V, the lipid is 1,2distearoyl-sn-glycero-3-phosphoethanolamine (DSPE), and salts thereof,e.g., the sodium salt.

In one embodiment, the small molecule targeting moieties are bonded,e.g., covalently bonded, to the lipid component of the nanoparticle.Thus, the invention also provides a target-specific stealth nanoparticlecomprising a therapeutic agent, a polymeric matrix, a lipid, and alow-molecular weight PSMA targeting ligand, wherein the targeting ligandis bonded, e.g., covalently bonded, to the lipid component of thenanoparticle. In one embodiment, the lipid component that is bonded tothe low-molecular weight targeting moiety is of the Formula V. Inanother embodiment, the invention provides a target-specific stealthnanoparticle comprising a therapeutic agent, a polymermeric matrix,DSPE, and a low-molecular weight PSMA targeting ligand, wherein theligand is bonded, e.g., covalently bonded, to DSPE. For example, thenanoparticle of the invention comprises a polymeric matrix comprisingPLGA-DSPE-PEG-Ligand. These nanoparticles can be used for the treatmentof the diseases and disorders discussed herein.

The properties of these and other polymers and methods for preparingthem are well known in the art (see, for example, U.S. Pat. Nos.6,123,727; 5,804,178; 5,770,417; 5,736,372; 5,716,404; 6,095,148;5,837,752; 5,902,599; 5,696,175; 5,514,378; 5,512,600; 5,399,665;5,019,379; 5,010,167; 4,806,621; 4,638,045; and 4,946,929; Wang et al,2001, J. Am. Chem. Soc., 123:9480; Lim et al., 2001, J. Am. Chem. Soc.,123:2460; Langer, 2000, Ace. Chem. Res., 33:94; Langer, 1999, J.Control. Release, 62:7; and Uhrich et al., 1999, Chem. Rev., 99:3181).More generally, a variety of methods for synthesizing suitable polymersare described in Concise Encyclopedia of Polymer Science and PolymericAmines and Ammonium Salts, Ed. by Goethals, Pergamon Press, 1980;Principles of Polymerization by Odian, John Wiley & Sons, FourthEdition, 2004; Contemporary Polymer Chemistry by Allcock et al.,Prentice-Hall, 1981; Deming et al, 1997, Nature, 390:386; and in U.S.Pat. Nos. 6,506,577, 6,632,922, 6,686,446, and 6,818,732.

In still another set of embodiments, a particle (comprising, e.g., acopolymer, e.g., a block copolymer) of the present invention includes atherapeutic moiety, i.e., a moiety that has a therapeutic orprophylactic effect when given to a subject. Examples of therapeuticmoieties to be used with the nanoparticles of the present inventioninclude antineoplastic or cytostatic agents or other agents withanticancer properties, or a combination thereof.

In some cases, the particle is a nanoparticle, i.e., the particle has acharacteristic dimension of less than about 1 micrometer, where thecharacteristic dimension of a particle is the diameter of a perfectsphere having the same volume as the particle. For example, the particlemay have a characteristic dimension of the particle may be less thanabout 300 nm, less than about 200 nm, less than about 150 nm, less thanabout 100 nm, less than about 50 nm, less than about 30 nm, less thanabout 10 nm, less than about 3 nm, or less than about 1 nm in somecases. In particular embodiments, the nanoparticle of the presentinvention has a diameter of 80 nm-200 nm.

In one set of embodiments, the particles may have an interior and asurface, where the surface has a composition different from theinterior, i.e., there may be at least one compound present in theinterior but not present on the surface (or vice versa), and/or at leastone compound is present in the interior and on the surface at differingconcentrations. For example, in one embodiment, a compound, such as atargeting moiety (i.e., a low-molecular weight PSMA ligand) of apolymeric conjugate of the present invention, may be present in both theinterior and the surface of the particle, but at a higher concentrationon the surface than in the interior of the particle, although in somecases, the concentration in the interior of the particle may beessentially nonzero, i.e., there is a detectable amount of the compoundpresent in the interior of the particle.

In some cases, the interior of the particle is more hydrophobic than thesurface of the particle. For instance, the interior of the particle maybe relatively hydrophobic with respect to the surface of the particle,and a drug or other payload may be hydrophobic, and readily associateswith the relatively hydrophobic center of the particle. The drug orother payload may thus be contained within the interior of the particle,which may thus shelter it from the external environment surrounding theparticle (or vice versa). For instance, a drug or other payloadcontained within a particle administered to a subject will be protectedfrom a subject's body, and the body will also be isolated from the drug.A targeting moiety present on the surface of the particle may allow theparticle to become localized at a particular targeting site, forinstance, a tumor, a disease site, a tissue, an organ, a type of cell,etc. As such, the nanoparticle is “target specific.” The drug or otherpayload may then, in some cases, be released from the particle andallowed to interact locally with the particular targeting site.

Yet another aspect of the invention is directed to polymer particleshaving more than one polymer or macromolecule present, and librariesinvolving such polymers or macromolecules. For example, in one set ofembodiments, particles may contain more than one distinguishablepolymers (e.g., copolymers, e.g., block copolymers), and the ratios ofthe two (or more) polymers may be independently controlled, which allowsfor the control of properties of the particle. For instance, a firstpolymer may be a polymeric conjugate comprising a targeting moiety and abiocompatible portion, and a second polymer may comprise a biocompatibleportion but not contain the targeting moiety, or the second polymer maycontain a distinguishable biocompatible portion from the first polymer.Control of the amounts of these polymers within the polymeric particlemay thus be used to control various physical, biological, or chemicalproperties of the particle, for instance, the size of the particle(e.g., by varying the molecular weights of one or both polymers), thesurface charge (e.g., by controlling the ratios of the polymers if thepolymers have different charges or terminal groups), the surfacehydrophilicity (e.g., if the polymers have different molecular weightsand/or hydrophilicities), the surface density of the targeting moiety(e.g., by controlling the ratios of the two or more polymers), etc.

As a specific example, a particle may comprise a first polymercomprising a poly(ethylene glycol) and a targeting moiety conjugated tothe poly(ethylene glycol), and a second polymer comprising thepoly(ethylene glycol) but not the targeting moiety, or comprising boththe poly(ethylene glycol) and the targeting moiety, where thepoly(ethylene glycol) of the second polymer has a different length (ornumber of repeat units) than the poly(ethylene glycol) of the firstpolymer. As another example, a particle may comprise a first polymercomprising a first biocompatible portion and a targeting moiety, and asecond polymer comprising a second biocompatible portion different fromthe first biocompatible portion (e.g., having a different composition, asubstantially different number of repeat units, etc.) and the targetingmoiety. As yet another example, a first polymer may comprise abiocompatible portion and a first targeting moiety, and a second polymermay comprise a biocompatible portion and a second targeting moietydifferent from the first targeting moiety.

In other embodiments, the nanoparticles of the invention are liposomes,liposome polymer combinations, dendrimers, and albumin particles thatare functionalized with a low-molecular weight PSMA ligand. Thesenanoparticles can be used to deliver a therapeutic agent to a subject,such as an anti-cancer agent like mitoxantrone or docetaxel.

As used herein, the term “liposome” refers to a generally sphericalvesicle or capsid generally comprised of amphipathic molecules (e.g.,having both a hydrophobic (nonpolar) portion and a hydrophilic (polar)portion). Typically, the liposome can be produced as a single(unilamellar) closed bilayer or a multicompartment (multilamellar)closed bilayer. The liposome can be formed by natural lipids, syntheticlipids, or a combination thereof. In a preferred embodiment, theliposome comprises one or more phospholipids. Lipids known in the artfor forming liposomes include, but are not limited to, lecithin (soy oregg; phosphatidylcholine), dipalmitoylphosphatidylcholine,dimyristoylphosphatidylcholine, distearoylphosphatidylcholine,dicetylphosphate, phosphatidylglycerol, hydrogenatedphosphatidylcholine, phosphatidic acid, cholesterol,phosphatidylinositol, a glycolipid, phosphatidylethanolamine,phosphatidylserine, a maleimidyl-derivatized phospholipid (e.g.,N-[4(p-malei-midophenyl)butyryl]phosphatidylethanolamine),dioleylphosphatidylcholine, dipalmitoylphosphatidylglycerol,dimyristoylphosphatidic acid, and a combination thereof. Liposomes havebeen used to deliver therapeutic agents to cells.

The nanoparticles of the invention can also be “stealth liposomes,”which comprise lipids wherein the head group is modified with PEG. Thisresults in extended circulating half life in the subject.

Dendritic polymers (otherwise known as “dendrimers”) are uniformpolymers, variously referred to in the literature as hyperbrancheddendrimers, arborols, fractal polymers and starburst dendrimers, havinga central core, an interior dendritic (hyperbranched) structure and anexterior surface with end groups. These polymers differ from theclassical linear polymers both in form and function. Dendrimer chemistryconstructs macromolecules with tight control of size, shape topology,flexibility and surface groups (e.g., a low-molecular weight PSMAligand). In what is known as divergent synthesis, these macromoleculesstart by reacting an initiator core in high-yield iterative reactionsequences to build symmetrical branches radiating from the core withwell-defined surface groups. Alternatively, in what is known asconvergent synthesis, dendritic wedges are constructed from theperiphery inwards towards a focal point and then several dendriticwedges are coupled at the focal points with a polyfunctional core.Dendritic syntheses form concentric layers, known as generations, witheach generation doubling the molecular mass and the number of reactivegroups at the branch ends so that the end generation dendrimer is ahighly pure, uniform monodisperse macromolecule that solubilizes readilyover a range of conditions. For the reasons discussed below, dendrimermolecular weights range from 300 to 700,000 daltons and the number ofsurface groups (e.g., reactive sites for coupling) range significantly.

“Albumin particles” (also referred to as “albumin microspheres”) havebeen reported as carriers of pharmacological or diagnostic agents (see,e.g., U.S. Pat. Nos. 5,439,686; 5,498,421; 5,560,933; 5,665,382;6,096,331; 6,506,405; 6,537,579; 6,749,868; and 6,753,006; all of whichare incorporated herein by reference). Microspheres of albumin have beenprepared by either heat denaturation or chemical crosslinking. Heatdenatured microspheres are produced from an emulsified mixture (e.g.,albumin, the agent to be incorporated, and a suitable oil) attemperatures between 100° C. and 150° C. The microspheres are thenwashed with a suitable solvent and stored. Leucuta et al. (InternationalJournal of Pharmaceutics 41:213-217 (1988)) describe the method ofpreparation of heat denatured microspheres.

Small Molecule Targeting Moieties

In yet another set of embodiments, a polymeric conjugate of the presentinvention includes a targeting moiety, i.e., a moiety able to bind to orotherwise associate with a biological entity, for example, a membranecomponent, a cell surface receptor, prostate specific membrane antigen,or the like. In the case of the instant invention, the targeting moietyis a low-molecular weight PSMA ligand. The term “bind” or “binding,” asused herein, refers to the interaction between a corresponding pair ofmolecules or portions thereof that exhibit mutual affinity or bindingcapacity, typically due to specific or non-specific binding orinteraction, including, but not limited to, biochemical, physiological,and/or chemical interactions. “Biological binding” defines a type ofinteraction that occurs between pairs of molecules including proteins,nucleic acids, glycoproteins, carbohydrates, hormones, or the like. Theterm “binding partner” refers to a molecule that can undergo bindingwith a particular molecule. “Specific binding” refers to molecules, suchas polynucleotides, that are able to bind to or recognize a bindingpartner (or a limited number of binding partners) to a substantiallyhigher degree than to other, similar biological entities. In one set ofembodiments, the targeting moiety has an affinity (as measured via adisassociation constant) of less than about 1 micromolar, at least about10 micromolar, or at least about 100 micromolar.

In preferred embodiments, the targeting moiety of the invention is asmall molecule. In certain embodiments, the term “small molecule” refersto organic compounds, whether naturally-occurring or artificiallycreated (e.g., via chemical synthesis) that have relatively lowmolecular weight and that are not proteins, polypeptides, or nucleicacids. Small molecules typically have multiple carbon-carbon bonds. Incertain embodiments, small molecules are less than about 2000 g/mol insize. In some embodiments, small molecules are less than about 1500g/mol or less than about 1000 g/mol. In some embodiments, smallmolecules are less than about 800 g/mol or less than about 500 g/mol.

In particularly preferred embodiments, the small molecule targetingmoiety targets prostate cancer tumors, and, in particular, the smallmolecule targeting moiety is a PSMA peptidase inhibitor. These moietiesare also referred to herein as “low-molecular weight PSMA ligands.” Whencompared with expression in normal tissues, expression of prostatespecific membrane antigen (PSMA) is at least 10-fold overexpressed inmalignant prostate relative to normal tissue, and the level of PSMAexpression is further up-regulated as the disease progresses intometastatic phases (Silver et al. 1997, Clin. Cancer Res., 3:81).

In some embodiments, the low-molecular weight PSMA ligand is of theFormulae I, II, III or IV:

and enantiomers, stereoisomers, rotamers, tautomers, diastereomers, orracemates thereof;

wherein

m and n are each, independently, 0, 1, 2 or 3;

p is 0 or 1;

R¹, R², R⁴ and R⁵ are each, independently, selected from the groupconsisting of substituted or unsubstituted alkyl (e.g., C₁₋₁₀-alkyl,C₁₋₆-alkyl, or C₁₋₄-alkyl), substituted or unsubstituted aryl (e.g.,phenyl or pyrdinyl), and any combination thereof; and

R³ is H or C₁₋₆-alkyl (e.g., CH₃).

For compounds of Formulae I, II, III and IV, R¹, R², R⁴ and R⁵ comprisepoints of attachment to the nanoparticle, e.g., a polymer that comprisesthe nanoparticle, e.g., PEG. The point of attachment may be formed by acovalent bond, ionic bond, hydrogen bond, a bond formed by adsorptionincluding chemical adsorption and physical adsorption, a bond formedfrom van der Waals bonds, or dispersion forces. For example, if R¹, R²,R⁴ or R⁵ are defined as an aniline or C₁₋₆-alkyl-NH₂ group, any hydrogen(e.g., an amino hydrogen) of these functional groups could be removedsuch that the low-molecular weight PSMA ligand is covalently bound tothe polymeric matrix (e.g., the PEG-block of the polymeric matrix) ofthe nanoparticle. As used herein, the term “covalent bond” refers to abond between two atoms formed by sharing at least one pair of electrons.

In particular embodiments of the Formulae I, II, III or IV, R¹, R², R⁴and R⁵ are each, independently, C₁₋₆-alkyl or phenyl, or any combinationof C₁₋₆-alkyl or phenyl, which are independently substituted one or moretimes with OH, SH, NH₂, or CO₂H, and wherein the alkyl group may beinterrupted by N(H), S or O. In another embodiment, R¹, R², R⁴ and R⁵are each, independently, CH₂-Ph, (CH₂)₂—SH, CH₂—SH, (CH₂)₂C(H)(NH₂)CO₂H,CH₂C(H)(NH₂)CO₂H, CH(NH₂)CH₂CO₂H, (CH₂)₂C(H)(SH)CO₂H, CH₂—N(H)-Ph,O—CH₂-Ph, or O—(CH₂)₂-Ph, wherein each Ph may be independentlysubstituted one or more times with OH, NH₂, CO₂H or SH. For theseformulae, the NH₂, OH or SH groups serve as the point of covalentattachment to the nanoparticle (e.g., —N(H)-PEG, —O-PEG, or —S-PEG).

In still another embodiment, the low-molecular weight PSMA ligand isselected from the group consisting of:

and enantiomers, stereoisomers, rotamers, tautomers, diastereomers, orracemates thereof, and wherein the NH₂, OH or SH groups serve as thepoint of covalent attachment to the nanoparticle (e.g., —N(H)-PEG,—O-PEG, or —S-PEG).

In another embodiment, the low-molecular weight PSMA ligand is selectedfrom the group consisting of

and enantiomers, stereoisomers, rotamers, tautomers, diastereomers, orracemates thereof, wherein R is independently selected from the groupconsisting of NH₂, SH, OH, CO₂H, C₁₋₆-alkyl that is substituted withNH₂, SH, OH or CO₂H, and phenyl that is substituted with NH₂, SH, OH orCO₂H, and wherein R serves as the point of covalent attachment to thenanoparticle (e.g., —N(H)-PEG, —S-PEG, —O-PEG, or CO₂-PEG).

In another embodiment, the low-molecular weight PSMA ligand is selectedfrom the group consisting of:

and enantiomers, stereoisomers, rotamers, tautomers, diastereomers, orracemates thereof, wherein the NH₂ or CO₂H groups serve as the point ofcovalent attachment to the nanoparticle (e.g., —N(H)-PEG, or CO₂-PEG).These compounds may be further substituted with NH₂, SH, OH, CO₂H,C₁₋₆-alkyl that is substituted with NH₂, SH, OH or CO₂H, or phenyl thatis substituted with NH₂, SH, OH or CO₂H, wherein these functional groupscan also serve as the point of covalent attachment to the nanoparticle.

In another embodiment, the low-molecular weight PSMA ligand is:

and enantiomers, stereoisomers, rotamers, tautomers, diastereomers, orracemates thereof, wherein n is 1, 2, 3, 4, 5 or 6. For this ligand, theNH₂ group serves as the point of covalent attachment to the nanoparticle(e.g., —N(H)-PEG).

In still another embodiment, the low-molecular weight PSMA ligand is:

and enantiomers, stereoisomers, rotamers, tautomers, diastereomers, orracemates thereof. Particularly, the butyl-amine compound has theadvantage of ease of synthesis, especially because of its lack of abenzene ring. Furthermore, without wishing to be bound by theory, thebutyl-amine compound will likely break down into naturally occurringmolecules (i.e., lysine and glutamic acid), thereby minimizing toxicityconcerns.

For these ligands, the NH₂ groups serve as the point of covalentattachment to the nanoparticle (e.g., —N(H)-PEG). Accordingly, thepresent invention provides the low-molecular weight PSMA ligands shownabove, wherein the amine substituents of the compounds are covalentlybound to poly(ethylene glycol), e.g., the compounds:

wherein n is 20 to 1720.

The compounds of the invention also include the low-molecular weightPSMA ligands of Formulae I, II, III or IV, wherein the low-molecularweight PSMA ligands are bound to a polymer. Such conjugates include:

wherein R₁, R₂, R₃, R₄ and R₅ have the definitions described forFormulae I, II, III or IV, and wherein R₇ and R₉ are alkyl groups, R₈ isan ester or amide linkage, X=0 to 1 mole fraction, Y=0 to 0.5 molefraction, X+Y=20 to 1720, and Z=25 to 455.

The compounds of the invention also include:

wherein R₁ and R₃ are alkyl groups, R₂ is an ester or amide linkage, X=0to 1 mole fraction, Y=0 to 0.5 mole fraction, X+Y=20 to 1720, and Z=25to 455.

Accordingly, the invention provides target-specific stealth nanoparticlecomprising a therapeutic agent and any of the polymer/low-molecularweight PSMA ligand conjugates described above.

In some embodiments, the low-molecular weight PSMA ligand is selectedfrom those ligands described in Zhou et al., Nat. Rev. Drug Discov.4:1015-26 (2005); Humblett et al., Mol. Imaging 4:448-62 (2005);Jayaprakash et al., Chem. Med. Chem. 1:299-302 (2006); Yoo et al.,Controlled Release 96: 273-83 (2004); Aggarwal et al., Cancer Res.66:9171-9177 (2006); and Foss et al., Clin. Cancer Res. 11(11):4022-4028 (2005) all of which are incorporated herein by reference intheir entireties.

In some embodiments, small molecule targeting moieties that may be usedto target cells associated with prostate cancer tumors include PSMApeptidase inhibitors such as 2-PMPA, GPI5232, VA-033,phenylalkylphosphonamidates (Jackson et al., 2001, Curr. Med. Chem.,8:949; Bennett et al, 1998, J. Am. Chem. Soc., 120:12139; Jackson etal., 2001, J. Med. Chem., 44:4170; Tsulcarnoto et al, 2002, Bioorg. Med.Chem. Lett., 12:2189; Tang et al., 2003, Biochem. Biophys. Res. Commun.,307:8; Oliver et al., 2003, Bioorg. Med. Chem., 11:4455; and Maung etal., 2004, Bioorg. Med. Chem., 12:4969), and/or analogs and derivativesthereof. In some embodiments, small molecule targeting moieties that maybe used to target cells associated with prostate cancer tumors includethiol and indole thiol derivatives, such as 2-MPPA and3-(2-mercaptoethyl)-1H-indole-2-carboxylic acid derivatives (Majer etal, 2003, J. Med. Chem., 46:1989; and U.S. Patent Publication2005/0080128). In some embodiments, small molecule targeting moietiesthat may be used to target cells associated with prostate cancer tumorsinclude hydroxamate derivatives (Stoermer et al, 2003, Bioorg. Med.Chem. Lett., 13:2097). In some embodiments, small molecule targetingmoieties that may be used to target cells associated with prostatecancer tumors include PBDA- and urea-based inhibitors, such as ZJ 43, ZJ11, ZJ 17, ZJ 38 (Nan et al. 2000, J. Med. Chem., 43:772; and Kozikowskiet al, 2004, J. Med. Chem., 47:1729), and/or and analogs and derivativesthereof. In some embodiments, small molecule targeting moieties that maybe used to target cells associated with prostate cancer tumors includeandrogen receptor targeting agents (ARTAs), such as those described inU.S. Pat. Nos. 7,026,500; 7,022,870; 6,998,500; 6,995,284; 6,838,484;6,569,896; 6,492,554; and in U.S. Patent Publications 2006/0287547;2006/0276540; 2006/0258628; 2006/0241180; 2006/0183931; 2006/0035966;2006/0009529; 2006/0004042; 2005/0033074; 2004/0260108; 2004/0260092;2004/0167103; 2004/0147550; 2004/0147489; 2004/0087810; 2004/0067979;2004/0052727; 2004/0029913; 2004/0014975; 2003/0232792; 2003/0232013;2003/0225040; 2003/0162761; 2004/0087810; 2003/0022868; 2002/0173495;2002/0099096; 2002/0099036.

In some embodiments, small molecule targeting moieties that may be usedto target cells associated with prostate cancer tumors includepolyamines, such as putrescine, spermine, and spermidine (U.S. PatentPublications 2005/0233948 and 2003/0035804).

In some embodiments, the low molecular weight PSMA ligand is aninhibitor of the enzyme glutamate carboxylase II (GCPII), also known asNAAG Peptidase or NAALADase. Accordingly, one could assay GCPII orNAALADase inhibitory activity as a basis to design/identify lowmolecular weight small molecules that bind PSMA. As such, the presentinvention is related to stealth nanoparticles with low molecular weightPSMA ligands that can be used for the treatment of cancers associatedwith GCPII activity.

Methods to screen for low molecular weight molecules capable of bindingspecifically to the cell surface proteins PSMA or GCPII are well knownin the art. In a non-limiting example, candidate low molecular weightmolecules can be labeled either radioactively (see Foss et al., ClinCancer Res, 2005, 11, 4022-4028) or fluorescently (Humblet et al.,Molecular Imaging, 2005, 4, 448-462). A standard laboratory cell line,e.g., HeLa cells, that do not normally express PMSA (control cells) canbe transfected with a transgene encoding the PMSA protein such that PMSAis expressed on the cell surface of these transfected cells. The abilityof the low molecular weight, labeled molecules to bind to the cellsectopically expressing PMSA but not to control cells can be determinedin vitro using standard, art recognized means such scintillationcounting or Fluorescence Activated Cell sorting (FACS) analysis. Lowmolecular weight molecules that bind to cells expressing PMSA but not tothe control cells would be considered specific for PMSA. The binding anduptake of nanoparticles can be assessed with assays using LNCap cells,which express PSMA (see, e.g., Example 4 herein).

The molecules disclosed in the patents, patent applications, andnon-patent references cited herein can be further substituted with afunctional group that can be reacted with a polymer of the invention(e.g., PEG) in order to produce a polymer conjugated to a targetingmoiety. The functional groups include any moiety that can be used tocreate a covalent bond with a polymer (e.g., PEG), such as amino,hydroxy, and thio. In a particular embodiment, the small molecules canbe substituted with NH₂, SH or OH, which are either bound directly tothe small molecule, or bound to the small molecule via an additionalgroup, e.g., alkyl or phenyl. In a non-limiting example, the smallmolecules disclosed in the patents, patent applications, and non-patentreferences cited herein may be bound to aniline, alkyl-NH₂ (e.g.,(CH₂)₁₋₆NH₂), or alkyl-SH (e.g., (CH₂)₁₋₆NH₂), wherein the NH₂ and SHgroups may be reacted with a polymer (e.g., PEG), to form a covalentbond with that polymer, i.e., to form a polymeric conjugate.

A polymeric conjugate of the present invention may be formed using anysuitable conjugation technique. For instance, two compounds such as atargeting moiety and a biocompatible polymer, a biocompatible polymerand a poly(ethylene glycol), etc., may be conjugated together usingtechniques such as EDC-NHS chemistry(1-ethyl-3-(3-dimethylaminopropyl)carbodiimide hydrochloride andN-hydroxysuccinimide) or a reaction involving a maleimide or acarboxylic acid, which can be conjugated to one end of a thiol, anamine, or a similarly functionalized polyether. The conjugation of suchpolymers, for instance, the conjugation of a poly(ester) and apoly(ether) to form a poly(ester-ether), can be performed in an organicsolvent, such as, but not limited to, dichloromethane, acetonitrile,chloroform, dimethylformamide, tetrahydrofuran, acetone, or the like.Specific reaction conditions can be determined by those of ordinaryskill in the art using no more than routine experimentation.

In another set of embodiments, a conjugation reaction may be performedby reacting a polymer that comprises a carboxylic acid functional group(e.g., a poly(ester-ether) compound) with a polymer or other moiety(such as a targeting moiety) comprising an amine. For instance, atargeting moiety, such as a low-molecular weight PSMA ligand, may bereacted with an amine to form an amine-containing moiety, which can thenbe conjugated to the carboxylic acid of the polymer. Such a reaction mayoccur as a single-step reaction, i.e., the conjugation is performedwithout using intermediates such as N-hydroxysuccinimide or a maleimide.The conjugation reaction between the amine-containing moiety and thecarboxylic acid-terminated polymer (such as a poly(ester-ether)compound) may be achieved, in one set of embodiments, by adding theamine-containing moiety, solubilized in an organic solvent such as (butnot limited to) dichloromethane, acetonitrile, chloroform,tetrahydrofuran, acetone, formamide, dimethylformamide, pyridines,dioxane, or dimethysulfoxide, to a solution containing the carboxylicacid-terminated polymer. The carboxylic acid-terminated polymer may becontained within an organic solvent such as, but not limited to,dichloromethane, acetonitrile, chloroform, dimethylformamide,tetrahydrofuran, or acetone. Reaction between the amine-containingmoiety and the carboxylic acid-terminated polymer may occurspontaneously, in some cases. Unconjugated reactants may be washed awayafter such reactions, and the polymer may be precipitated in solventssuch as, for instance, ethyl ether, hexane, methanol, or ethanol.

As a specific example, a low-molecular weight PSMA ligand may beprepared as a targeting moiety in a particle as follows. Carboxylic acidmodified poly(lactide-co-glycolide) (PLGA-COOH) may be conjugated to anamine-modified heterobifunctional poly(ethylene glycol) (NH₂-PEG-COOH)to form a copolymer of PLGA-PEG-COOH. By using an amine-modifiedlow-molecular weight PSMA ligand (NH₂-Lig), a triblock polymer ofPLGA-PEG-Lig may be formed by conjugating the carboxylic acid end of thePEG to the amine functional group on the ligand. The multiblock polymercan then be used, for instance, as discussed below, e.g., fortherapeutic applications.

Another aspect of the invention is directed to particles that includepolymer conjugates such as the ones described above. The particles mayhave a substantially spherical (i.e., the particles generally appear tobe spherical), or non-spherical configuration. For instance, theparticles, upon swelling or shrinkage, may adopt a non-sphericalconfiguration. In some cases, the particles may include polymericblends. For instance, a polymer blend may be formed that includes afirst polymer comprising a targeting moiety (i.e., a low-molecularweight PSMA ligand) and a biocompatible polymer, and a second polymercomprising a biocompatible polymer but not comprising the targetingmoiety. By controlling the ratio of the first and second polymers in thefinal polymer, the concentration and location of targeting moiety in thefinal polymer may be readily controlled to any suitable degree.

As used herein, the term “alkyl” includes saturated aliphatic groups,including straight-chain alkyl groups (e.g., methyl, ethyl, propyl,butyl, pentyl, hexyl, heptyl, octyl, nonyl, decyl, etc.), branched-chainalkyl groups (isopropyl, tert-butyl, isobutyl, etc.), cycloalkyl(alicyclic) groups (cyclopropyl, cyclopentyl, cyclohexyl, cycloheptyl,cyclooctyl), alkyl substituted cycloalkyl groups, and cycloalkylsubstituted alkyl groups. Furthermore, the expression“C_(x)-C_(y)-alkyl”, wherein x is 1-5 and y is 2-10 indicates aparticular alkyl group (straight- or branched-chain) of a particularrange of carbons. For example, the expression C₁-C₄-alkyl includes, butis not limited to, methyl, ethyl, propyl, butyl, isopropyl, tert-butyland isobutyl.

The term alkyl further includes alkyl groups which can further includeoxygen, nitrogen, sulfur or phosphorous atoms replacing one or morecarbons of the hydrocarbon backbone. In an embodiment, a straight chainor branched chain alkyl has 10 or fewer carbon atoms in its backbone(e.g., C₁-C₁₀ for straight chain, C₃-C₁₀ for branched chain), and morepreferably 6 or fewer carbons. Likewise, preferred cycloalkyls have from4-7 carbon atoms in their ring structure, and more preferably have 5 or6 carbons in the ring structure.

Moreover, alkyl (e.g., methyl, ethyl, propyl, butyl, pentyl, hexyl,etc.) includes both “unsubstituted alkyl” and “substituted alkyl”, thelatter of which refers to alkyl moieties having substituents replacing ahydrogen on one or more carbons of the hydrocarbon backbone, which allowthe molecule to perform its intended function. The term “substituted” isintended to describe moieties having substituents replacing a hydrogenon one or more atoms, e.g. C, O or N, of a molecule. Such substituentscan include, for example, alkenyl, alkynyl, halogen, hydroxyl,alkylcarbonyloxy, arylcarbonyloxy, alkoxycarbonyloxy,aryloxycarbonyloxy, carboxylate, alkylcarbonyl, arylcarbonyl,alkoxycarbonyl, aminocarbonyl, alkylaminocarbonyl, dialkylaminocarbonyl,alkylthiocarbonyl, alkoxyl, phosphate, phosphonato, phosphinato, amino(including alkyl amino, dialkylamino, arylamino, diarylamino, andalkylarylamino), acylamino (including alkylcarbonylamino,arylcarbonylamino, carbamoyl and ureido), amidino, imino, sulfhydryl,alkylthio, arylthio, thiocarboxylate, sulfates, alkylsulfinyl,sulfonato, sulfamoyl, sulfonamido, nitro, trifluoromethyl, cyano, azido,heterocyclic, alkylaryl, morpholino, phenol, benzyl, phenyl, piperizine,cyclopentane, cyclohexane, pyridine, 5H-tetrazole, triazole, piperidine,or an aromatic or heteroaromatic moiety.

Further examples of substituents of the invention, which are notintended to be limiting, include moieties selected from straight orbranched alkyl (preferably C₁-C₅), cycloalkyl (preferably C₃-C₈), alkoxy(preferably C₁-C₆), thioalkyl (preferably C₁-C₆), alkenyl (preferablyC₂-C₆), alkynyl (preferably C₂-C₆), heterocyclic, carbocyclic, aryl(e.g., phenyl), aryloxy (e.g., phenoxy), aralkyl (e.g., benzyl),aryloxyalkyl (e.g., phenyloxyalkyl), arylacetamidoyl, alkylaryl,heteroaralkyl, alkylcarbonyl and arylcarbonyl or other such acyl group,heteroarylcarbonyl, or heteroaryl group, (CR′R″)₀₋₃NR′R″ (e.g., —NH₂),(CR′R″)₀₋₃CN (e.g., —CN), —NO₂, halogen (e.g., —F, —Cl, —Br, or —I),(CR′R″)₀₋₃C(halogen)₃ (e.g., —CF₃), (CR′R″)₀₋₃CH(halogen)₂,(CR′R″)₀₋₃CH₂(halogen), (CR′R″)₀₋₃CONR′R″, (CR′R″)₀₋₃(CNH)NR′R″,(CR′R″)₀₋₃S(O)₁₋₂NR′R″, (CR′R″)₀₋₃CHO, (CR′R″)₀₋₃O(CR′R″)₀₋₃H,(CR′R″)₀₋₃S(O)₀₋₃R′ (e.g., —SO₃H, —OSO₃H), (CR′R″)₀₋₃O(CR′R″)₀₋₃H (e.g.,—CH₂OCH₃ and —OCH₃), (CR′R″)₀₋₃S(CR′R″)₀₋₃H (e.g., —SH and —SCH₃),(CR′R″)₀₋₃OH (e.g., —OH), (CR′R″)₀₋₃COR′, (CR′R″)₀₋₃(substituted orunsubstituted phenyl), (CR′R″)₀₋₃(C₃-C₈ cycloalkyl), (CR′R″)₀₋₃CO₂R′(e.g., —CO₂H), or (CR′R″)₀₋₃OR′ group, or the side chain of anynaturally occurring amino acid; wherein R′ and R″ are each independentlyhydrogen, a C₁-C₅ alkyl, C₂-C₅ alkenyl, C₂-C₅ alkynyl, or aryl group.Such substituents can include, for example, halogen, hydroxyl,alkylcarbonyloxy, arylcarbonyloxy, alkoxycarbonyloxy,aryloxycarbonyloxy, carboxylate, alkylcarbonyl, alkoxycarbonyl,aminocarbonyl, alkylthiocarbonyl, alkoxyl, phosphate, phosphonato,phosphinato, cyano, amino (including alkyl amino, dialkylamino,arylamino, diarylamino, and alkylarylamino), acylamino (includingalkylcarbonylamino, arylcarbonylamino, carbamoyl and ureido), amidino,imino, oxime, thiol, alkylthio, arylthio, thiocarboxylate, sulfates,sulfonato, sulfamoyl, sulfonamido, nitro, trifluoromethyl, cyano, azido,heterocyclyl, or an aromatic or heteroaromatic moiety. In certainembodiments, a carbonyl moiety (C═O) can be further derivatized with anoxime moiety, e.g., an aldehyde moiety can be derivatized as its oxime(—C═N—OH) analog. It will be understood by those skilled in the art thatthe moieties substituted on the hydrocarbon chain can themselves besubstituted, if appropriate. Cycloalkyls can be further substituted,e.g., with the substituents described above. An “aralkyl” moiety is analkyl substituted with an aryl (e.g., phenylmethyl (i.e., benzyl)).

The term “aryl” includes groups, including 5- and 6-membered single-ringaromatic groups that can include from zero to four heteroatoms, forexample, phenyl, pyrrole, furan, thiophene, thiazole, isothiaozole,imidazole, triazole, tetrazole, pyrazole, oxazole, isoxazole, pyridine,pyrazine, pyridazine, and pyrimidine, and the like. Furthermore, theterm “aryl” includes multicyclic aryl groups, e.g., tricyclic, bicyclic,e.g., naphthalene, benzoxazole, benzodioxazole, benzothiazole,benzoimidazole, benzothiophene, methylenedioxyphenyl, quinoline,isoquinoline, anthryl, phenanthryl, napthridine, indole, benzofuran,purine, benzofuran, deazapurine, or indolizine. Those aryl groups havingheteroatoms in the ring structure can also be referred to as “arylheterocycles”, “heterocycles,” “heteroaryls” or “heteroaromatics.” Thearomatic ring can be substituted at one or more ring positions with suchsubstituents as described above, as for example, alkyl, halogen,hydroxyl, alkoxy, alkylcarbonyloxy, arylcarbonyloxy, alkoxycarbonyloxy,aryloxycarbonyloxy, carboxylate, alkylcarbonyl, alkylaminoacarbonyl,aralkylaminocarbonyl, alkenylaminocarbonyl, alkylcarbonyl, arylcarbonyl,aralkylcarbonyl, alkenylcarbonyl, alkoxycarbonyl, aminocarbonyl,alkylthiocarbonyl, phosphate, phosphonato, phosphinato, cyano, amino(including alkyl amino, dialkylamino, arylamino, diarylamino, andalkylarylamino), acylamino (including alkylcarbonylamino,arylcarbonylamino, carbamoyl and ureido), amidino, imino, sulfhydryl,alkylthio, arylthio, thiocarboxylate, sulfates, alkylsulfinyl,sulfonato, sulfamoyl, sulfonamido, nitro, trifluoromethyl, cyano, azido,heterocyclyl, alkylaryl, or an aromatic or heteroaromatic moiety. Arylgroups can also be fused or bridged with alicyclic or heterocyclic ringswhich are not aromatic so as to form a polycycle (e.g., tetralin).

Additionally, the phrase “any combination thereof” implies that anynumber of the listed functional groups and molecules can be combined tocreate a larger molecular architecture. For example, the terms “alkyl”and “aryl” can be combined to form —CH₂Ph, or a -PhCH₃ (touyl) group.Likewise, the phrase “any combination of C₁₋₆-alkyl or phenyl, which areindependently substituted one or more times with OH, SH, NH₂, or CO₂H”represent a —(CH₂)₃-analine structure, or a -Ph-(CH₂)₃—NH₂ substitutent.It is to be understood that when combining functional groups andmolecules to create a larger molecular architecture, hydrogens can beremoved or added, as required to satisfy the valence of each atom.

Preparation of Target-Specific Stealth Nanoparticles

Another aspect of the invention is directed to systems and methods ofproducing such target-specific stealth nanoparticles. In someembodiments, a solution containing a polymer is contacted with a liquid,such as an immiscible liquid, to form nanoparticles containing thepolymeric conjugate.

As mentioned, one aspect of the invention is directed to a method ofdeveloping nanoparticles with desired properties, such as desiredchemical, biological, or physical properties. In one set of embodiments,the method includes producing libraries of nanoparticles having highlycontrolled properties, which can be formed by mixing together two ormore polymers in different ratios. By mixing together two or moredifferent polymers (e.g., copolymers, e.g., block copolymers) indifferent ratios and producing particles from the polymers (e.g.,copolymers, e.g., block copolymers), particles having highly controlledproperties may be formed. For example, one polymer (e.g., copolymer,e.g., block copolymer) may include a low-molecular weight PSMA ligand,while another polymer (e.g., copolymer, e.g., block copolymer) may bechosen for its biocompatibility and/or its ability to controlimmunogenicity of the resultant particle.

In one set of embodiments, the particles are formed by providing asolution comprising one or more polymers, and contacting the solutionwith a polymer nonsolvent to produce the particle. The solution may bemiscible or immiscible with the polymer nonsolvent. For example, awater-miscible liquid such as acetonitrile may contain the polymers, andparticles are formed as the acetonitrile is contacted with water, apolymer nonsolvent, e.g., by pouring the acetonitrile into the water ata controlled rate. The polymer contained within the solution, uponcontact with the polymer nonsolvent, may then precipitate to formparticles such as nanoparticles. Two liquids are said to be “immiscible”or not miscible, with each other when one is not soluble in the other toa level of at least 10% by weight at ambient temperature and pressure.Typically, an organic solution (e.g., dichloromethane, acetonitrile,chloroform, tetrahydrofuran, acetone, formamide, dimethylformamide,pyridines, dioxane, dimethysulfoxide, etc.) and an aqueous liquid (e.g.,water, or water containing dissolved salts or other species, cell orbiological media, ethanol, etc.) are immiscible with respect to eachother. For example, the first solution may be poured into the secondsolution (at a suitable rate or speed). In some cases, particles such asnanoparticles may be formed as the first solution contacts theimmiscible second liquid, e.g., precipitation of the polymer uponcontact causes the polymer to form nanoparticles while the firstsolution poured into the second liquid, and in some cases, for example,when the rate of introduction is carefully controlled and kept at arelatively slow rate, nanoparticles may form. The control of suchparticle formation can be readily optimized by one of ordinary skill inthe art using only routine experimentation.

By creating a library of such particles, particles having any desirableproperties may be identified. For example, properties such as surfacefunctionality, surface charge, size, zeta (ζ) potential, hydrophobicity,ability to control immunogenicity, and the like, may be highlycontrolled. For instance, a library of particles may be synthesized, andscreened to identify the particles having a particular ratio of polymersthat allows the particles to have a specific density of moieties (e.g.,low-molecular weight PSMA ligands) present on the surface of theparticle. This allows particles having one or more specific propertiesto be prepared, for example, a specific size and a specific surfacedensity of moieties, without an undue degree of effort. Accordingly,certain embodiments of the invention are directed to screeningtechniques using such libraries, as well as any particles identifiedusing such libraries. In addition, identification may occur by anysuitable method. For instance, the identification may be direct orindirect, or proceed quantitatively or qualitatively.

In some embodiments, already-formed nanoparticles are functionalizedwith a targeting moiety using procedures analogous to those describedfor producing ligand-functionalized polymeric conjugates. As a specific,non-limiting example, this embodiment is exemplified schematically inFIG. 1A. In this figure, a first copolymer (PLGA-PEG,poly(lactide-co-glycolide) and poly(ethylene glycol)) is mixed with atherapeutic agent to form particles. The particles are then associatedwith a low-molecular weight PSMA ligand to form nanoparticles that canbe used for the treatment of cancer. The particles can be associatedwith varying amounts of low-molecular weight PSMA ligands in order tocontrol the PSMA ligand surface density of the nanoparticle, therebyaltering the therapeutic characteristics of the nanoparticle.Furthermore, for example, by controlling parameters such as PLGAmolecular weight, the molecular weight of PEG, and the nanoparticlesurface charge, very precisely controlled particles may be obtainedusing this method of preparation.

As a specific, non-limiting example, another embodiment is shownschematically in FIG. 1B. In this figure, a first copolymer (PLGA-PEG)is conjugated to a low-molecular weight PSMA ligand (PSMALig) to form aPLGA-PEG-PSMALig polymer. This ligand-bound polymer is mixed with asecond, non-functionalized polymer (PLGA-PEG in this example) at varyingratios to form a series of particles having different properties, forexample, different surface densities of PSMA ligand as shown in thisexample. For example, by controlling parameters such as PLGA molecularweight, the molecular weight of PEG, the PSMA ligand surface density,and the nanoparticle surface charge, very precisely controlled particlesmay be obtained using this method of preparation. As shown in FIG. 1B,the resulting nanoparticle can also include a therapeutic agent.

In another embodiment, the invention provides a method of preparing astealth nanoparticle wherein the nanoparticle has a ratio ofligand-bound polymer to non-functionalized polymer effective for thetreatment of prostate cancer, wherein the hydrophilic, ligand-boundpolymer is conjugated to a lipid that will self assemble with thehydrophobic polymer, such that the hydrophobic and hydrophilic polymersthat constitute the nanoparticle are not covalently bound.“Self-assembly” refers to a process of spontaneous assembly of a higherorder structure that relies on the natural attraction of the componentsof the higher order structure (e.g., molecules) for each other. Ittypically occurs through random movements of the molecules and formationof bonds based on size, shape, composition, or chemical properties. Forexample, such a method comprises providing a first polymer that isreacted with a lipid, to form a polymer/lipid conjugate. Thepolymer/lipid conjugate is then reacted with the low-molecular weightPSMA ligand to prepare a ligand-bound polymer/lipid conjugate; andmixing the ligand-bound polymer/lipid conjugate with a second,non-functionalized polymer, and the therapeutic agent; such that thestealth nanoparticle is formed. In certain embodiments, the firstpolymer is PEG, such that a lipid-terminated PEG is formed. In oneembodiment, the lipid is of the Formula V, e.g., 2distearoyl-sn-glycero-3-phosphoethanolamine (DSPE), and salts thereof,e.g., the sodium salt. The lipid-terminated PEG can then, for example,be mixed with PLGA to form a nanoparticle.

Libraries of such particles may also be formed. For example, by varyingthe ratios of the two (or more) polymers within the particle, theselibraries can be useful for screening tests, high-throughput assays, orthe like. Entities within the library may vary by properties such asthose described above, and in some cases, more than one property of theparticles may be varied within the library. Accordingly, one embodimentof the invention is directed to a library of nanoparticles havingdifferent ratios of polymers with differing properties. The library mayinclude any suitable ratio(s) of the polymers.

In some cases, a population of particles may be present. For example, apopulation of particles may include at least 20 particles, at least 50particles, at least 100 particles, at least 300 particles, at least1,000 particles, at least 3,000 particles, or at least 10,000 particles.Various embodiments of the present invention are directed to suchpopulations of particles. For instance, in some embodiments, theparticles may each be substantially the same shape and/or size(“monodisperse”). For example, the particles may have a distribution ofcharacteristic dimensions such that no more than about 5% or about 10%of the particles have a characteristic dimension greater than about 10%greater than the average characteristic dimension of the particles, andin some cases, such that no more than about 8%, about 5%, about 3%,about 1%, about 0.3%, about 0.1%, about 0.03%, or about 0.01% have acharacteristic dimension greater than about 10% greater man the averagecharacteristic dimension of the particles. In some cases, no more thanabout 5% of the particles have a characteristic dimension greater thanabout 5%, about 3%, about 1%, about 0.3%, about 0.1%, about 0.03%, orabout 0.01% greater than the average characteristic dimension of theparticles.

More generally, the polymers chosen to be used to create the library ofparticles may be any of a wide variety of polymers, such as describedherein. Generally, two, three, four, or more polymers are mixed, in awide range of ratios (e.g., each ranging from 0% to 100%), to formparticles such as nanoparticles having different ratios of each of thepolymers. The two or more polymers may be distinguishable in somefashion, e.g., having different polymeric groups, having the samepolymeric groups but with different molecular weights, having somepolymeric groups in common but having others that are different (e.g.,one may have a polymeric group that the other does not have), having thesame polymeric groups but in different orders, etc. The library ofparticles may have any number of members, for example, the library mayhave 2, 3, 5, 10, 30, 100, 300, 1000, 3000, 10,000, 30,000, 100,000,etc. members, which can be identified in some fashion. In some cases,the library may exist contemporaneously; for example, the library may becontained in one or more microtiter plates, vials, etc., or in someembodiments, the library may have include members created at differenttimes.

The library of particles can then be screened in some fashion toidentify those particles having one or more desired properties, forexample, surface functionality, surface charge, size, zeta (ζ)potential, hydrophobicity, ability to control immunogenicity, and thelike. One or more of the macromolecules within the particles may includeone or more polymers chosen to be biocompatible or biodegradable, one ormore polymers chosen to reduce immunogenicity, and/or one or morelow-molecular weight PSMA ligands. The macromolecules within the librarymay comprise some or all of these polymers, in any suitable combination(including, but not limited to, combinations in which a first polymercomprises a low-molecular weight PSMA ligand and a second polymer doesnot contain any of these species).

As a specific example, in one embodiment, the particles may include afirst macromolecule comprising a biocompatible polymer, and alow-molecular weight PSMA ligand, and a second macromolecule comprisinga biocompatible polymer, which may or may not be the same as that of thefirst macromolecule. As another example, a first macromolecule may be ablock copolymer comprising a biocompatible hydrophobic polymer, abiocompatible hydrophilic polymer, and a low-molecular weight PSMAligand; and a second macromolecule distinguishable from the firstmacromolecule in some fashion. For instance, the second macromoleculemay comprise the same (or a different) biocompatible hydrophobic polymerand the same (or a different) biocompatible hydrophilic polymer, but adifferent low-molecular weight PSMA ligand (or no ligand at all) thanthe first macromolecule.

The nanoparticle of the invention may also be comprised of, as anotherexample, a first macromolecule comprising a biocompatible hydrophobicpolymer, a biocompatible hydrophilic polymer, and a low-molecular weightPSMA ligand, and a second macromolecule that is distinguishable from thefirst macromolecule. For instance, the second macromolecule may containnone of the polymers of the first macromolecule, the secondmacromolecule may contain one or more polymers of the firstmacromolecule and one or more polymers not present in the firstmacromolecule, the second macromolecule may lack one or more of thepolymers of the first macromolecule, the second macromolecule maycontain all of the polymers of the first macromolecule, but in adifferent order and/or with one or more of the polymers having differentmolecular weights, etc.

As yet another example, the first macromolecule may comprise abiocompatible hydrophobic polymer, a biocompatible hydrophilic polymer,and a low-molecular weight PSMA ligand, and the second macromolecule maycomprise the biocompatible hydrophobic polymer and the biocompatiblehydrophilic polymer, and be distinguishable from the first macromoleculein some fashion. As still another example, the first macromolecule maycomprise a biocompatible hydrophobic polymer and a biocompatiblehydrophilic polymer, and the second macromolecule may comprise thebiocompatible hydrophobic polymer and a low-molecular weight PSMAligand, where the second macromolecule is distinguishable from the firstmacromolecule in some fashion.

The nanoparticles described above may also contain therapeutic agents.Examples of therapeutic agents include, but are not limited to, achemotherapeutic agent, a radioactive agent, a nucleic acid-based agent,a lipid-based agent, a carbohydrate based agent, a natural smallmolecule, or a synthetic small molecule.

The polymers or macromolecules may then be formed into a particle, usingtechniques such as those discussed in detail below. The geometry formedby the particle from the polymer or macromolecule may depend on factorssuch as the polymers that form the particle.

FIG. 2 illustrates that libraries can be produced using polymers such asthose described above. For example, in FIG. 2, polymeric particlescomprising a first macromolecule comprising a biocompatible hydrophobicpolymer, a biocompatible hydrophilic polymer, and a low-molecular weightPSMA ligand, and a second macromolecule that comprises a biocompatiblehydrophobic polymer and a biocompatible hydrophilic polymer may be usedto create a library of particles having different ratios of the firstand second macromolecules.

Such a library may be useful in achieving particles having any number ofdesirable properties, for instance properties such as surfacefunctionality, surface charge, size, zeta (ζ) potential, hydrophobicity,ability to control immunogenicity, or the like. In FIG. 2, differentratios of the first and second macromolecules (including ratios whereone of the macromolecules is absent) are combined to produce particlesthat form the basis of the library.

For instance, as shown in FIG. 2, as the amount of the firstmacromolecule is increased, relative to the second macromolecule, theamount of moiety (e.g., low-molecular weight PSMA ligand) present on thesurface of the particle may be increased. Thus, any suitableconcentration of moiety on the surface may be achieved simply bycontrolling the ratio of the first and second macromolecules in theparticles. Accordingly, such a library of particles may be useful inselecting or identifying particles having a particular functionality.

As specific examples, in some embodiments of the present invention, thelibrary includes particles comprising polymeric conjugates of abiocompatible polymer and a low-molecular weight PSMA ligand, asdiscussed herein. Referring now to FIG. 3, one such particle is shown asa non-limiting example. In this figure, a polymeric conjugate of theinvention is used to form a particle 10. The polymer forming particle 10includes a low-molecular weight PSMA ligand 15, present on the surfaceof the particle, and a biocompatible portion 17. In some cases, as shownhere, targeting moiety 15 may be conjugated to biocompatible portion 17.However, not all of biocompatible portion 17 is shown conjugated totargeting moiety 15. For instance, in some cases, particles such asparticle 10 may be formed using a first polymer comprising biocompatibleportion 17 and low-molecular weight PSMA ligand 15, and a second polymercomprising biocompatible portion 17 but not targeting moiety 15. Bycontrolling the ratio of the first and second polymers, particles havingdifferent properties may be formed, and in some cases, libraries of suchparticles may be formed. In addition, contained within the center ofparticle 10 is drug 12. In some cases, drug 12 may be contained withinthe particle due to hydrophobic effects. For instance, the interior ofthe particle may be relatively hydrophobic with respect to the surfaceof the particle, and the drug may be a hydrophobic drug that associateswith the relatively hydrophobic center of the particle. In oneembodiment, the therapeutic agent is associated with the surface of,encapsulated within, surrounded by, or dispersed throughout thenanoparticle. In another embodiment, the therapeutic agent isencapsulated within the hydrophobic core of the nanoparticle.

As a specific example, particle 10 may contain polymers including arelatively hydrophobic biocompatible polymer and a relativelyhydrophilic targeting moiety 15, such that, during particle formation, agreater concentration of the hydrophilic targeting moiety is exposed onthe surface and a greater concentration of the hydrophobic biocompatiblepolymer is present within the interior of the particle.

In some embodiments, the biocompatible polymer is a hydrophobic polymer.Non-limiting examples of biocompatible polymers include polylactide,polyglycolide, and/or poly(lactide-co-glycolide).

In one embodiment, the invention comprises a nanoparticle comprising: 1)a polymeric matrix; 2) an amphiphilic compound or layer that surroundsor is dispersed within the polymeric matrix forming a continuous ordiscontinuous shell for the particle; 3) a stealth polymer; and 4) acovalently attached low molecular weight PSMA ligand. An amphiphiliclayer can reduce water penetration into the nanoparticle, therebyenhancing drug encapsulation efficiency and slowing drug release.Further, these amphipilic layer protected nanoparticles can providetherapeutic advantages by releasing the encapsulated drug and polymer atappropriate times.

As used herein, the term “amphiphilic” refers to a property where amolecule has both a polar portion and a non-polar portion. Often, anamphiphilic compound has a polar head attached to a long hydrophobictail. In some embodiments, the polar portion is soluble in water, whilethe non-polar portion is insoluble in water. In addition, the polarportion may have either a formal positive charge, or a formal negativecharge. Alternatively, the polar portion may have both a formal positiveand a negative charge, and be a zwitterion or inner salt. For purposesof the invention, the amphiphilic compound can be, but is not limitedto, one or a plurality of the following: naturally derived lipids,surfactants, or synthesized compounds with both hydrophilic andhydrophobic moieties.

Specific examples of amphiphilic compounds include, but are not limitedto, phospholipids, such as 1,2distearoyl-sn-glycero-3-phosphoethanolamine (DSPE),dipalmitoylphosphatidylcholine (DPPC), distearoylphosphatidylcholine(DSPC), diarachidoylphosphatidylcholine (DAPC),dibehenoylphosphatidylcholine (DBPC), ditricosanoylphosphatidylcholine(DTPC), and dilignoceroylphatidylcholine (DLPC), incorporated at a ratioof between 0.01-60 (weight lipid/w polymer), most preferably between0.1-30 (weight lipid/w polymer). Phospholipids which may be usedinclude, but are not limited to, phosphatidic acids, phosphatidylcholines with both saturated and unsaturated lipids, phosphatidylethanolamines, phosphatidylglycerols, phosphatidylserines,phosphatidylinositols, lysophosphatidyl derivatives, cardiolipin, andβ-acyl-y-alkyl phospholipids. Examples of phospholipids include, but arenot limited to, phosphatidylcholines such asdioleoylphosphatidylcholine, dimyristoylphosphatidylcholine,dipentadecanoylphosphatidylcholine dilauroylphosphatidylcholine,dipalmitoylphosphatidylcholine (DPPC), distearoylphosphatidylcholine(DSPC), diarachidoylphosphatidylcholine (DAPC),dibehenoylphosphatidylcho-line (DBPC), ditricosanoylphosphatidylcholine(DTPC), dilignoceroylphatidylcholine (DLPC); andphosphatidylethanolamines such as dioleoylphosphatidylethanolamine or1-hexadecyl-2-palmitoylglycerophos-phoethanolamine. Syntheticphospholipids with asymmetric acyl chains (e.g., with one acyl chain of6 carbons and another acyl chain of 12 carbons) may also be used.

In a particular embodiment, an amphiphilic component that can be used toform an amphiphilic layer is lecithin, and, in particular,phosphatidylcholine. Lecithin is an amphiphilic lipid and, as such,forms a phospholipid bilayer having the hydrophilic (polar) heads facingtheir surroundings, which are oftentimes aqueous, and the hydrophobictails facing each other. Lecithin has an advantage of being a naturallipid that is available from, e.g., soybean, and already has FDAapproval for use in other delivery devices. In addition, a mixture oflipids such as lethicin is more advantageous than one single pure lipid.

In certain embodiments of the invention, the amphiphilic layer of thenanoparticle, e.g., the layer of lecithin, is a monolayer, meaning thelayer is not a phospholipid bilayer, but exists as a single continuousor discontinuous layer around, or within, the nanoparticle. Theamphiphilic layer is “associated with” the nanoparticle of theinvention, meaning it is positioned in some proximity to the polymericmatrix, such as surrounding the outside of the polymeric shell, ordispersed within the polymers that make up the nanoparticle.

Thus, in one embodiment, the invention provides a target specificnanoparticle comprising: 1) PLGA; 2) PEG; 3) an amphiphilic compound orlayer (e.g., lecithin) that surrounds or is dispersed within thePLGA/PEG matrix forming a continuous or discontinuous shell for theparticle; and 4) a covalently attached low molecular weight PSMA ligand.In one embodiment, the PLGA and PEG are copolymers, and the lowmolecular weight PSMA ligand is covalently bound to PEG. In anotherembodiment, the PEG is bound to DSPE, which self assembles with PLGA,and the low molecular weight PSMA ligand is covalently bound to PEG. Inanother embodiment, the ratio of amphiphilic compound to polymer isbetween 14:1 and 34:1, by weight.

In another embodiment, the invention comprises a nanoparticlecomprising: 1) a polymeric matrix comprising a biodegradable polymer; 2)an amphiphilic compound or layer that surrounds or is dispersed withinthe polymeric matrix forming a continuous or discontinuous shell for theparticle; 3) a stealth polymer; and 4) a covalently attached lowmolecular weight PSMA ligand, wherein the nanoparticle diameter isbetween 40-80 nm and wherein the ratio of amphiphilic compound topolymer is between 14:1 and 34:1, by weight. In another embodiment, theinvention comprises a nanoparticle comprising: 1) a polymeric matrixcomprising a biodegradable polymer; 2) lecithin; 3) a stealth polymer;and 4) a covalently attached low molecular weight PSMA ligand. Inanother embodiment, the invention comprises a nanoparticlecomprising: 1) a polymeric matrix comprising a biodegradable polymer; 2)lecithin; 3) a stealth polymer; and 4) a covalently attached lowmolecular weight PSMA ligand, wherein the nanoparticle diameter isbetween 40-80 nm and wherein the ratio of lecithin to polymer is between14:1 and 34:1 by weight. In another embodiment, the invention comprisesa nanoparticle comprising: 1) a polymeric matrix comprising abiodegradable polymer; 2) a mixture of two or more amphiphilic compoundsselected from phosphatidyl choline, phosphatidyl inositol, phosphatidylethanolamine, and phosphatidic acid; 3) a stealth polymer: and 4) acovalently attached low molecular weight PSMA ligand. In a furtherembodiment, the invention comprises a nanoparticle comprising: 1) apolymeric matrix comprising a biodegradable polymer; 2) a mixture ofthree or more amphiphilic compounds selected from phosphatidyl choline,phosphatidyl inositol, phosphatidyl ethanolamine, and phosphatidic acid;3) a stealth polymer; and 4) a covalently attached low molecular weightPSMA ligand. In a still further embodiment, the invention comprises ananoparticle comprising: 1) a polymeric matrix comprising abiodegradable polymer; 2) an amphiphilic compound or layer thatsurrounds or is dispersed within the polymeric matrix forming acontinuous or discontinuous shell for the particle; 3) polyethyleneglycol; and 4) a covalently attached low molecular weight PSMA ligand.In another embodiment, the invention comprises a nanoparticlecomprising: 1) a polymeric matrix comprising a biodegradable polymer; 2)lecithin; 3) polyethylene glycol; and 4) a covalently attached lowmolecular weight PSMA ligand. In another embodiment, the inventioncomprises a nanoparticle comprising: 1) a polymeric matrix comprising abiodegradable polymer; 2) a mixture of two or more amphiphilic compoundsselected from phosphatidyl choline, phosphatidyl inositol, phosphatidylethanolamine, and phosphatidic acid; 3) polyethylene glycol; and 4) acovalently attached low molecular weight PSMA ligand. In one embodiment,the invention comprises a nanoparticle comprising: 1) a polymeric matrixcomprising a biodegradable polymer; 2) lecithin; 3) polyethylene glycol;and 4) a covalently attached low molecular weight PSMA ligand, whereinthe nanoparticle diameter is between 40-80 nm and wherein the ratio oflecithin to polymer is between 14:1 and 34:1 by weight. In certainembodiments, the biodegradable polymer is PLGA. In other embodiments,the stealth polymer is PEG.

Therapeutic Agents

According to the present invention, any agents (“payload”), including,for example, therapeutic agents (e.g. anti-cancer agents), diagnosticagents (e.g. contrast agents; radionuclides; and fluorescent,luminescent, and magnetic moieties), prophylactic agents (e.g.vaccines), and/or nutraceutical agents (e.g. vitamins, minerals, etc.)may be delivered by the nanoparticles of the invention. Exemplary agentsto be delivered in accordance with the present invention include, butare not limited to, small molecules (e.g. cytotoxic agents), nucleicacids (e.g., siRNA, RNAi, and mircoRNA agents), proteins (e.g.antibodies), peptides, lipids, carbohydrates, hormones, metals,radioactive elements and compounds, drugs, vaccines, immunologicalagents, etc., and/or combinations thereof. In some embodiments, theagent to be delivered is an agent useful in the treatment of cancer(e.g., prostate cancer).

For instance, the targeting moiety may target or cause the particle tobecome localized at specific portions within a subject, and the payloadmay be delivered to those portions. In a particular embodiment, the drugor other payload may is released in a controlled release manner from theparticle and allowed to interact locally with the particular targetingsite (e.g., a tumor). The term “controlled release” (and variants ofthat term) as used herein (e.g., in the context of “controlled-releasesystem”) is generally meant to encompass release of a substance (e.g., adrug) at a selected site or otherwise controllable in rate, interval,and/or amount. Controlled release encompasses, but is not necessarilylimited to, substantially continuous delivery, patterned delivery (e.g.,intermittent delivery over a period of time that is interrupted byregular or irregular time intervals), and delivery of a bolus of aselected substance (e.g., as a predetermined, discrete amount if asubstance over a relatively short period of time (e.g., a few seconds orminutes)).

For example, a targeting portion may cause the particles to becomelocalized to a tumor, a disease site, a tissue, an organ, a type ofcell, etc. within the body of a subject, depending on the targetingmoiety used. For example, a low-molecular weight PSMA ligand may becomelocalized to prostate cancer cells. The subject may be a human ornon-human animal. Examples of subjects include, but are not limited to,a mammal such as a dog, a cat, a horse, a donkey, a rabbit, a cow, apig, a sheep, a goat, a rat, a mouse, a guinea pig, a hamster, aprimate, a human or the like.

In one set of embodiments, the payload is a drug or a combination ofmore than one drug. Such particles may be useful, for example, inembodiments where a targeting moiety may be used to direct a particlecontaining a drug to a particular localized location within a subject,e.g., to allow localized delivery of the drug to occur. Exemplarytherapeutic agents include chemotherapeutic agents such as doxorubicin(adriamycin), gemcitabine (gemzar), daunorubicin, procarbazine,mitomycin, cytarabine, etoposide, methotrexate, 5-fluorouracil (5-FU),vinblastine, vincristine, bleomycin, paclitaxel (taxol), docetaxel(taxotere), aldesleukin, asparaginase, busulfan, carboplatin,cladribine, camptothecin, CPT-11, 10-hydroxy-7-ethylcamptothecin (SN38),dacarbazine, S-I capecitabine, ftorafur, 5′ deoxyfluorouridine, UFT,eniluracil, deoxycytidine, 5-azacytosine, 5-azadeoxycytosine,allopurinol, 2-chloroadenosine, trimetrexate, aminopterin,methylene-10-deazaminopterin (MDAM), oxaplatin, picoplatin, tetraplatin,satraplatin, platinum-DACH, ormaplatin, CI-973, JM-216, and analogsthereof, epirubicin, etoposide phosphate, 9-aminocamptothecin,10,11-methylenedioxycamptothecin, karenitecin, 9-nitrocamptothecin, TAS103, vindesine, L-phenylalanine mustard, ifosphamidemefosphamide,perfosfamide, trophosphamide carmustine, semustine, epothilones A-E,tomudex, 6-mercaptopurine, 6-thioguanine, amsacrine, etoposidephosphate, karenitecin, acyclovir, valacyclovir, ganciclovir,amantadine, rimantadine, lamivudine, zidovudine, bevacizumab,trastuzumab, rituximab, 5-Fluorouracil, and combinations thereof.

Non-limiting examples of potentially suitable drugs include anti-canceragents, including, for example, docetaxel, mitoxantrone, andmitoxantrone hydrochloride. In another embodiment, the payload may be ananti-cancer drug such as 20-epi-1, 25 dihydroxyvitamin D3, 4-ipomeanol,5-ethynyluracil, 9-dihydrotaxol, abiraterone, acivicin, aclarubicin,acodazole hydrochloride, acronine, acylfiilvene, adecypenol, adozelesin,aldesleukin, all-tk antagonists, altretamine, ambamustine, ambomycin,ametantrone acetate, amidox, amifostine, aminoglutethimide,aminolevulinic acid, amrubicin, amsacrine, anagrelide, anastrozole,andrographolide, angiogenesis inhibitors, antagonist D, antagonist G,antarelix, anthramycin, anti-dorsalizdng morphogenetic protein-1,antiestrogen, antineoplaston, antisense oligonucleotides, aphidicolinglycinate, apoptosis gene modulators, apoptosis regulators, apurinicacid, ARA-CDP-DL-PTBA, arginine deaminase, asparaginase, asperlin,asulacrine, atamestane, atrimustine, axinastatin 1, axinastatin 2,axinastatin 3, azacitidine, azasetron, azatoxin, azatyrosine, azetepa,azotomycin, baccatin III derivatives, balanol, batimastat,benzochlorins, benzodepa, benzoylstaurosporine, beta lactam derivatives,beta-alethine, betaclamycin B, betulinic acid, BFGF inhibitor,bicalutamide, bisantrene, bisantrene hydrochloride,bisazuidinylspermine, bisnafide, bisnafide dimesylate, bistratene A,bizelesin, bleomycin, bleomycin sulfate, BRC/ABL antagonists, breflate,brequinar sodium, bropirimine, budotitane, busulfan, buthioninesulfoximine, cactinomycin, calcipotriol, calphostin C, calusterone,camptothecin derivatives, canarypox IL-2, capecitabine, caraceraide,carbetimer, carboplatin, carboxamide-amino-triazole,carboxyamidotriazole, carest M3, carmustine, earn 700, cartilage derivedinhibitor, carubicin hydrochloride, carzelesin, casein kinaseinhibitors, castanosperrnine, cecropin B, cedefingol, cetrorelix,chlorambucil, chlorins, chloroquinoxaline sulfonamide, cicaprost,cirolemycin, cisplatin, cis-porphyrin, cladribine, clomifene analogs,clotrimazole, collismycin A, collismycin B, combretastatin A4,combretastatin analog, conagenin, crambescidin 816, crisnatol, crisnatolmesylate, cryptophycin 8, cryptophycin A derivatives, curacin A,cyclopentanthraquinones, cyclophosphamide, cycloplatam, cypemycin,cytarabine, cytarabine ocfosfate, cytolytic factor, cytostatin,dacarbazine, dacliximab, dactinomycin, daunorubicin hydrochloride,decitabine, dehydrodidemnin B, deslorelin, dexifosfamide, dexormaplatin,dexrazoxane, dexverapamil, dezaguanine, dezaguanine mesylate,diaziquone, didemnin B, didox, diethyhiorspermine,dihydro-5-azacytidine, dioxamycin, diphenyl spiromustine, docetaxel,docosanol, dolasetron, doxifluridine, doxorubicin, doxorubicinhydrochloride, droloxifene, droloxifene citrate, dromostanolonepropionate, dronabinol, duazomycin, duocannycin SA, ebselen, ecomustine,edatrexate, edelfosine, edrecolomab, eflomithine, eflomithinehydrochloride, elemene, elsarnitrucin, emitefur, enloplatin, enpromate,epipropidine, epirubicin, epirubicin hydrochloride, epristeride,erbulozole, erythrocyte gene therapy vector system, esorubicinhydrochloride, estramustine, estramustine analog, estramustine phosphatesodium, estrogen agonists, estrogen antagonists, etanidazole, etoposide,etoposide phosphate, etoprine, exemestane, fadrozole, fadrozolehydrochloride, fazarabine, fenretinide, filgrastim, finasteride,flavopiridol, flezelastine, floxuridine, fluasterone, fludarabine,fludarabine phosphate, fluorodaunorunicin hydrochloride, fluorouracil,fluorocitabine, forfenimex, formestane, fosquidone, fostriecin,fostriecin sodium, fotemustine, gadolinium texaphyrin, gallium nitrate,galocitabine, ganirelix, gelatinase inhibitors, gemcitabine, gemcitabinehydrochloride, glutathione inhibitors, hepsulfam, heregulin,hexamethylene bisacetamide, hydroxyurea, hypericin, ibandronic acid,idarubicin, idarubicin hydrochloride, idoxifene, idramantone,ifosfamide, ihnofosine, ilomastat, imidazoacridones, imiquimod,immunostimulant peptides, insulin-like growth factor-1 receptorinhibitor, interferon agonists, interferon alpha-2A, interferonalpha-2B, interferon alpha-N1, interferon alpha-N3, interferon beta-IA,interferon gamma-IB, interferons, interleukins, iobenguane,iododoxorubicin, iproplatm, irinotecan, irinotecan hydrochloride,iroplact, irsogladine, isobengazole, isohomohalicondrin B, itasetron,jasplakinolide, kahalalide F, lamellarin-N triacetate, lanreotide,lanreotide acetate, leinamycin, lenograstim, lentinan sulfate,leptolstatin, letrozole, leukemia inhibiting factor, leukocyte alphainterferon, leuprolide acetate, leuprolide/estrogen/progesterone,leuprorelin, levamisole, liarozole, liarozole hydrochloride, linearpolyamine analog, lipophilic disaccharide peptide, lipophilic platinumcompounds, lissoclinamide, lobaplatin, lombricine, lometrexol,lometrexol sodium, lomustine, lonidamine, losoxantrone, losoxantronehydrochloride, lovastatin, loxoribine, lurtotecan, lutetium texaphyrinlysofylline, lytic peptides, maitansine, mannostatin A, marimastat,masoprocol, maspin, matrilysin inhibitors, matrix metalloproteinaseinhibitors, maytansine, mechlorethamine hydrochloride, megestrolacetate, melengestrol acetate, melphalan, menogaril, merbarone,mercaptopurine, meterelin, methioninase, methotrexate, methotrexatesodium, metoclopramide, metoprine, meturedepa, microalgal protein kinaseC uihibitors, MIF inhibitor, mifepristone, miltefosine, mirimostim,mismatched double stranded RNA, mitindomide, mitocarcin, mitocromin,mitogillin, mitoguazone, mitolactol, mitomalcin, mitomycin, mitomycinanalogs, mitonafide, mitosper, mitotane, mitotoxin fibroblast growthfactor-saporin, mitoxantrone, mitoxantrone hydrochloride, mofarotene,molgramostim, monoclonal antibody, human chorionic gonadotrophin,monophosphoryl lipid a/myobacterium cell wall SK, mopidamol, multipledrug resistance gene inhibitor, multiple tumor suppressor 1-basedtherapy, mustard anticancer agent, mycaperoxide B, mycobacterial cellwall extract, mycophenolic acid, myriaporone, n-acetyldinaline,nafarelin, nagrestip, naloxone/pentazocine, napavin, naphterpin,nartograstim, nedaplatin, nemorubicin, neridronic acid, neutralendopeptidase, nilutamide, nisamycin, nitric oxide modulators, nitroxideantioxidant, nitrullyn, nocodazole, nogalamycin, n-substitutedbenzamides, O6-benzylguanine, octreotide, okicenone, oligonucleotides,onapristone, ondansetron, oracin, oral cytokine inducer, ormaplatin,osaterone, oxaliplatin, oxaunomycin, oxisuran, paclitaxel, paclitaxelanalogs, paclitaxel derivatives, palauamine, palmitoylrhizoxin,pamidronic acid, panaxytriol, panomifene, parabactin, pazelliptine,pegaspargase, peldesine, peliomycin, pentamustine, pentosan polysulfatesodium, pentostatin, pentrozole, peplomycin sulfate, perflubron,perfosfamide, perillyl alcohol, phenazinomycin, phenylacetate,phosphatase inhibitors, picibanil, pilocarpine hydrochloride,pipobroman, piposulfan, pirarubicin, piritrexim, piroxantronehydrochloride, placetin A, placetin B, plasminogen activator inhibitor,platinum complex, platinum compounds, platinum-triamine complex,plicamycin, plomestane, porfimer sodium, porfiromycin, prednimustine,procarbazine hydrochloride, propyl bis-acridone, prostaglandin J2,prostatic carcinoma antiandrogen, proteasome inhibitors, protein A-basedimmune modulator, protein kinase C inhibitor, protein tyrosinephosphatase inhibitors, purine nucleoside phosphorylase inhibitors,puromycin, puromycin hydrochloride, purpurins, pyrazorurin,pyrazoloacridine, pyridoxylated hemoglobin polyoxyethylene conjugate,RAF antagonists, raltitrexed, ramosetron, RAS farnesyl proteintransferase inhibitors, RAS inhibitors, RAS-GAP inhibitor, retelliptinedemethylated, rhenium RE 186 etidronate, rhizoxin, riboprine, ribozymes,RH retinamide, RNAi, rogletimide, rohitukine, romurtide, roquinimex,rubiginone B1, ruboxyl, safingol, safingol hydrochloride, saintopin,sarcnu, sarcophytol A, sargramostim, SDI1 mimetics, semustine,senescence derived inhibitor 1, sense oligonucleotides, signaltransduction inhibitors, signal transduction modulators, simtrazene,single chain antigen binding protein, sizofiran, sobuzoxane, sodiumborocaptate, sodium phenylacetate, solverol, somatomedin bindingprotein, sonermin, sparfosafe sodium, sparfosic acid, sparsomycin,spicamycin D, spirogermanium hydrochloride, spiromustine, spiroplatin,splenopentin, spongistatin 1, squalamine, stem cell inhibitor, stem-celldivision inhibitors, stipiamide, streptonigrin, streptozocin,stromelysin inhibitors, sulfinosine, sulofenur, superactive vasoactiveintestinal peptide antagonist, suradista, suramin, swainsonine,synthetic glycosaminoglycans, talisomycin, tallimustine, tamoxifenmethiodide, tauromustine, tazarotene, tecogalan sodium, tegafur,tellurapyrylium, telomerase inhibitors, teloxantrone hydrochloride,temoporfin, temozolomide, teniposide, teroxirone, testolactone,tetrachlorodecaoxide, tetrazomine, thaliblastine, thalidomide,thiamiprine, thiocoraline, thioguanine, thiotepa, thrombopoietin,thrombopoietin mimetic, thymalfasin, thymopoietin receptor agonist,thymotrinan, thyroid stimulating hormone, tiazofurin, tin ethyletiopurpurin, tirapazamine, titanocene dichloride, topotecanhydrochloride, topsentin, toremifene, toremifene citrate, totipotentstem cell factor, translation inhibitors, trestolone acetate, tretinoin,triacetyluridine, triciribine, triciribine phosphate, trimetrexate,trimetrexate glucuronate, triptorelin, tropisetron, tubulozolehydrochloride, turosteride, tyrosine kinase inhibitors, tyrphostins, UBCinhibitors, ubenimex, uracil mustard, uredepa, urogenital sinus-derivedgrowth inhibitory factor, urokinase receptor antagonists, vapreotide,variolin B, velaresol, veramine, verdins, verteporfin, vinblastinesulfate, vincristine sulfate, vindesine, vindesine sulfate, vinepidinesulfate, vinglycinate sulfate, vinleurosine sulfate, vinorelbine,vinorelbine tartrate, vinrosidine sulfate, vinxaltine, vinzolidinesulfate, vitaxin, vorozole, zanoterone, zeniplatin, zilascorb,zinostatin, zinostatin stimalamer, or zorubicin hydrochloride.

Once the inventive conjugates have been prepared, they may be combinedwith pharmaceutical acceptable carriers to form a pharmaceuticalcomposition, according to another aspect of the invention. As would beappreciated by one of skill in this art, the carriers may be chosenbased on the route of administration as described below, the location ofthe target issue, the drug being delivered, the time course of deliveryof the drug, etc.

In one embodiment, the nanoparticles of this invention will containnucleic acids such as siRNA.

Preferably, the siRNA molecule has a length from about 10-50 or morenucleotides. More preferably, the siRNA molecule has a length from about15-45 nucleotides. Even more preferably, the siRNA molecule has a lengthfrom about 19-40 nucleotides. Even more preferably, the siRNA moleculehas a length of from about 21-23 nucleotides.

The siRNA of the invention preferably mediates RNAi against a targetmRNA. The siRNA molecule can be designed such that every residue iscomplementary to a residue in the target molecule. Alternatively, one ormore substitutions can be made within the molecule to increase stabilityand/or enhance processing activity of said molecule. Substitutions canbe made within the strand or can be made to residues at the ends of thestrand.

The target mRNA cleavage reaction guided by siRNAs is sequence specific.In general, siRNA containing a nucleotide sequence identical to aportion of the target gene are preferred for inhibition. However, 100%sequence identity between the siRNA and the target gene is not requiredto practice the present invention. Sequence variations can be toleratedincluding those that might be expected due to genetic mutation, strainpolymorphism, or evolutionary divergence. For example, siRNA sequenceswith insertions, deletions, and single point mutations relative to thetarget sequence have also been found to be effective for inhibition.Alternatively, siRNA sequences with nucleotide analog substitutions orinsertions can be effective for inhibition.

Moreover, not all positions of an siRNA contribute equally to targetrecognition. Mismatches in the center of the siRNA are most critical andessentially abolish target RNA cleavage. In contrast, the 3′ nucleotidesof the siRNA do not contribute significantly to specificity of thetarget recognition. Generally, residues at the 3′ end of the siRNAsequence which is complementary to the target RNA (e.g., the guidesequence) are not critical for target RNA cleavage.

Sequence identity may readily be determined by sequence comparison andalignment algorithms known in the art. To determine the percent identityof two nucleic acid sequences (or of two amino acid sequences), thesequences are aligned for optimal comparison purposes (e.g., gaps can beintroduced in the first sequence or second sequence for optimalalignment). The nucleotides (or amino acid residues) at correspondingnucleotide (or amino acid) positions are then compared. When a positionin the first sequence is occupied by the same residue as thecorresponding position in the second sequence, then the molecules areidentical at that position. The percent identity between the twosequences is a function of the number of identical positions shared bythe sequences (i.e., % homology=# of identical positions/total # ofpositions ×100), optionally penalizing the score for the number of gapsintroduced and/or length of gaps introduced.

The comparison of sequences and determination of percent identitybetween two sequences can be accomplished using a mathematicalalgorithm. In one embodiment, the alignment generated over a certainportion of the sequence aligned having sufficient identity but not overportions having low degree of identity (i.e., a local alignment). Apreferred, non-limiting example of a local alignment algorithm utilizedfor the comparison of sequences is the algorithm of Karlin and Altschul(1990) Proc. NatL Acad Sci. USA, 87:2264-68, modified as in Karlin andAltschul (1993) Proc. NatL Acad. Sci. USA, 90:5873. Such an algorithm isincorporated into the BLAST programs (version 2.0) of Altschul, et al.(1990), J Mol Biol. 215:403-10.

In another embodiment, the alignment is optimized by introducingappropriate gaps and percent identity is determined over the length ofthe aligned sequences (i.e., a gapped alignment). To obtain gappedalignments for comparison purposes, Gapped BLAST can be utilized asdescribed in Altschul et al., (1997) Nucleic Acids Res., 25(17):3389. Inanother embodiment, the alignment is optimized by introducingappropriate gaps and percent identity is determined over the entirelength of the sequences aligned (i.e., a global alignment). A preferred,non-limiting example of a mathematical algorithm utilized for the globalcomparison of sequences is the algorithm of Myers and Miller, CABIOS(1989). Such an algorithm is incorporated into the ALIGN program(version 2.0) which is part of the GCG sequence alignment softwarepackage. When utilizing the ALIGN program for comparing amino acidsequences, a PAM120 weight residue table, a gap length penalty of 12,and a gap penalty of 4 can be used.

Greater than 90% sequence identity, e.g., 91%, 92%, 93%, 94%, 95%, 96%,97%, 98%, 99% or even 100% sequence identity, between the siRNA and theportion of the target mRNA is preferred. Alternatively, the siRNA may bedefined functionally as a nucleotide sequence (or oligonucleotidesequence) that is capable of hybridizing with a portion of the targetmRNA transcript (e.g., 400 mM NaCl, 40 mM PIPES pH 6.4, 1 mM EDTA, 50°C. or 70° C. hybridization for 12-16 hours; followed by washing).Additional hybridization conditions include hybridization at 70° C. in1×SSC or 50° C. in 1×SSC, 50% formamide followed by washing at 70° C. in0.3×SSC or hybridization at 70° C. in 4×SSC or 50° C. in 4×SSC, 50%formamide followed by washing at 67° C. in 1×SSC. The hybridizationtemperature for hybrids anticipated to be less than 50 base pairs inlength should be 5-10° C. less than the melting temperature (Tm) of thehybrid, where Tm is determined according to the following equations. Forhybrids less than 18 base pairs in length, Tm(° C.)=2(# of A+Tbases)+4(# of G+C bases). For hybrids between 18 and 49 base pairs inlength, Tm(° C.)=81.5+16.6(log₁₀[Na+])+0.41 (% G+C)−(600/N), where N isthe number of bases in the hybrid, and [Na+] is the concentration ofsodium ions in the hybridization buffer ([Na+] for 1×SSC=0.165 M).Additional examples of stringency conditions for polynucleotidehybridization are provided in Sambrook, J., E. F. Fritsch, and T.Maniatis, 1989, Molecular Cloning: A Laboratory Manual, Cold SpringHarbor Laboratory Press, Cold Spring Harbor, N.Y., chapters 9 and 11,and Current Protocols in Molecular Biology, 1995, F. M. Ausubel et al.,eds., John Wiley & Sons, Inc., sections 2.10 and 6.3-6.4, incorporatedherein by reference. The length of the identical nucleotide sequencesmay be at least about or about equal to 10, 12, 15, 17, 20, 22, 25, 27,30, 32, 35, 37, 40, 42, 45, 47 or 50 bases.

In one embodiment, the siRNA molecules of the present invention aremodified to improve stability in serum or in growth medium for cellcultures. In order to enhance the stability, the 3′-residues may bestabilized against degradation, e.g., they may be selected such thatthey consist of purine nucleotides, particularly adenosine or guanosinenucleotides. Alternatively, substitution of pyrimidine nucleotides bymodified analogues, e.g., substitution of uridine by 2′-deoxythymidineis tolerated and does not affect the efficiency of RNA interference. Forexample, the absence of a 2′ hydroxyl may significantly enhance thenuclease resistance of the siRNAs in tissue culture medium.

In another embodiment of the present invention the siRNA molecule maycontain at least one modified nucleotide analogue. The nucleotideanalogues may be located at positions where the target-specificactivity, e.g., the RNAi mediating activity is not substantiallyeffected, e.g., in a region at the 5′-end and/or the 3′-end of the RNAmolecule. Particularly, the ends may be stabilized by incorporatingmodified nucleotide analogues.

Nucleotide analogues include sugar- and/or backbone-modifiedribonucleotides (i.e., include modifications to the phosphate-sugarbackbone). For example, the phosphodiester linkages of natural RNA maybe modified to include at least one of a nitrogen or sulfur heteroatom.In preferred backbone-modified ribonucleotides the phosphoester groupconnecting to adjacent ribonucleotides is replaced by a modified group,e.g., of phosphothioate group. In preferred sugar modifiedribonucleotides, the 2′OH-group is replaced by a group selected from H,OR, R, halo, SH, SR, NH₂, NHR, NR₂ or NO₂, wherein R is C1-C6 alkyl,alkenyl or alkynyl and halo is F, Cl, Br or I.

Nucleotide analogues also include nucleobase-modified ribonucleotides,i.e., ribonucleotides, containing at least one non-naturally occurringnucleobase instead of a naturally occurring nucleobase. Bases may bemodified to block the activity of adenosine deaminase. Exemplarymodified nucleobases include, but are not limited to, uridine and/orcytidine modified at the 5-position, e.g., 5-(2-amino)propyl uridine,5-bromo uridine; adenosine and/or guanosines modified at the 8 position,e.g., 8-bromo guanosine; deaza nucleotides, e.g., 7-deaza-adenosine; O-and N-alkylated nucleotides, e.g., N6-methyl adenosine are suitable. Itshould be noted that the above modifications may be combined.

RNA may be produced enzymatically or by partial/total organic synthesis,any modified ribonucleotide can be introduced by in vitro enzymatic ororganic synthesis. In one embodiment, an siRNA is prepared chemically.Methods of synthesizing RNA molecules are known in the art, inparticular, the chemical synthesis methods as described in Verina andEckstein (1998), Annul Rev. Biochem. 67:99. In another embodiment, ansiRNA is prepared enzymatically. For example, an siRNA can be preparedby enzymatic processing of a long, double-stranded RNA having sufficientcomplementarity to the desired target mRNA. Processing of long RNA canbe accomplished in vitro, for example, using appropriate cellularlysates and siRNAs can be subsequently purified by gel electrophoresisor gel filtration. siRNA can then be denatured according toart-recognized methodologies. In an exemplary embodiment, siRNA can bepurified from a mixture by extraction with a solvent or resin,precipitation, electrophoresis, chromatography, or a combinationthereof. Alternatively, the siRNA may be used with no or a minimum ofpurification to avoid losses due to sample processing.

Alternatively, the siRNAs can also be prepared by enzymatictranscription from synthetic DNA templates or from DNA plasmids isolatedfrom recombinant bacteria. Typically, phage RNA polymerases are usedsuch as T7, T3 or SP6 RNA polyimerase (Milligan and Uhlenbeck (1989)Methods EnzynioL, 180:51-62). The RNA may be dried for storage ordissolved in an aqueous solution. The solution may contain buffers orsalts to inhibit annealing, and/or promote stabilization of the doublestrands.

Commercially available design tools and kits, such as those availablefrom Ambion, Inc. (Austin, Tex.), and the Whitehead Institute ofBiomedical Research at MIT (Cambridge, Mass.) allow for the design andproduction of siRNA. By way of example, a desired mRNA sequence can beentered into a sequence program that will generate sense and antisensetarget strand sequences. These sequences can then be entered into aprogram that determines the sense and antisense siRNA oligonucleotidetemplates. The programs can also be used to add, e.g., hairpin insertsor T1 promoter primer sequences. Kits also can then be employed to buildsiRNA expression cassettes.

In various embodiments, siRNAs are synthesized in vivo, in situ, and invitro. Endogenous RNA polymerase of the cell may mediate transcriptionin vivo or in situ, or cloned RNA polymerase can be used fortranscription in vivo or in vitro. For transcription from a transgene invivo or an expression construct, a regulatory region (e.g., promoter,enhancer, silencer, splice donor and acceptor, polyadenylation) may beused to transcribe the siRNAs. Inhibition may be targeted by specifictranscription in an organ, tissue, or cell type; stimulation of anenvironmental condition (e.g., infection, stress, temperature, chemicalinducers); and/or engineering transcription at a developmental stage orage. A transgenic organism that expresses siRNAs from a recombinantconstruct may be produced by introducing the construct into a zygote, anembryonic stem cell, or another multipotent cell derived from theappropriate organism.

In one embodiment, the target mRNA of the invention specifies the aminoacid sequence of at least one protein such as a cellular protein (e.g.,a nuclear, cytoplasmic, transmembrane, or membrane-associated protein).In another embodiment, the target mRNA of the invention specifies theamino acid sequence of an extracellular protein (e.g., an extracellularmatrix protein or secreted protein). As used herein, the phrase“specifies the amino acid sequence” of a protein means that the mRNAsequence is translated into the amino acid sequence according to therules of the genetic code. The following classes of proteins are listedfor illustrative purposes: developmental proteins (e.g., adhesionmolecules, cyclin kinase inhibitors, Wnt family members, Pax familymembers, Winged helix family members, Hox family members,cytokines/lymphokines and their receptors, growth/differentiationfactors and their receptors, neurotransmitters and their receptors);oncogene-encoded proteins (e.g., ABLI, BCLI, BCL2, BCL6, CBFA2. CBL,CSFIR, ERBA, ERBB, EBRB2, ERBB2, ERBB3, ETSI, ETSI, ETV6, FGR, FOS, FYN,HCR, HRAS, JUN, KRAS, LCK, LYN, MDM2, MLL, MYB, MYC, MYCLI, MYCN, NRAS,PIM 1, PML, RET, SRC, TALI, TCL3, and YES); tumor suppressor proteins(e.g., APC, BRCA1, BRCA2, MADH4, MCC, NF 1, NF2, RB 1, TP53, and WTI);and enzymes (e.g., ACC synthases and oxidases, ACP desaturases andhydroxylases, ADPglucose pyrophorylases, acetylases and deacetylases,ATPases, alcohol dehydrogenases, amylases, amyloglucosidases, catalases,cellulases, chalcone synthases, chitinases, cyclooxygenases,decarboxylases, dextrinases, DNA and RNA polymerases, galactosidases,glucanases, glucose oxidases, granule-bound starch synthases, GTPases,helicases, hemicellulases, integrases, inulinases, invertases,isomerases, kinases, lactases, lipases, lipoxygenases, lysozymes,nopaline synthases, octopine synthases, pectinesterases, peroxidases,phosphatases, phospholipases, phosphorylases, phytases, plant growthregulator synthases, polygalacturonases, proteinases and peptidases,pullanases, recombinases, reverse transcriptases, RUBISCOs,topoisomerases, and xylanases), proteins involved in tumor growth(including vascularization) or in metastatic activity or potential,including cell surface receptors and ligands as well as secretedproteins, cell cycle regulatory, gene regulatory, and apoptosisregulatory proteins, immune response, inflammation, complement, orclotting regulatory proteins.

As used herein, the term “oncogene” refers to a gene which stimulatescell growth and, when its level of expression in the cell is reduced,the rate of cell growth is reduced or the cell becomes quiescent. In thecontext of the present invention, oncogenes include intracellularproteins, as well as extracellular growth factors which may stimulatecell proliferation through autocrine or paracrine function. Examples ofhuman oncogenes against which siRNA and morpholino constructs candesigned include c-myc, c-myb, mdm2, PKA-I (protein kinase A type I),Abl-1, Bcl2, Ras, c-Raf kinase, CDC25 phosphatases, cyclins, cyclindependent kinases (cdks), telomerase, PDGF/sis, erb-B, fos, jun, mos,and src, to name but a few. In the context of the present invention,oncogenes also include a fusion gene resulted from chromosomaltranslocation, for example, the Bcr/Abl fusion oncogene.

Further proteins include cyclin dependent kinases, c-myb, c-myc,proliferating cell nuclear antigen (PCNA), transforming growthfactor-beta (TGF-beta), and transcription factors nuclear factor kappaB(NF-.kappa.B), E2F, HER-2/neu, PKA, TGF-alpha, EGFR, TGF-beta, IGFIR,P12, MDM2, BRCA, Bcl-2, VEGF, MDR, ferritin, transferrin receptor, IRE,C-fos, HSP27, C-raf and metallothionein genes.

The siRNA employed in the present invention can be directed against thesynthesis of one or more proteins. Additionally or alternatively, therecan be more than one siRNA directed against a protein, e.g., duplicatesiRNA or siRNA that correspond to overlapping or non-overlapping targetsequences against the same target protein. Accordingly, in oneembodiment two, three, four or any plurality of siRNAs against the sametarget mRNA can be included in the nanoparticles of the invention.Additionally, several siRNAs directed against several proteins can beemployed. Alternatively, the siRNA can be directed against structural orregulatory RNA molecules that do not code for proteins.

In a preferred aspect of the invention, the target mRNA molecule of theinvention specifies the amino acid sequence of a protein associated witha pathological condition. For example, the protein may be apathogen-associated protein (e.g., a viral protein involved inimmunosuppression or immunoavoidance of the host, replication of thepathogen, transmission of the pathogen, or maintenance of theinfection), or a host protein which facilitates entry of the pathogeninto the host, drug metabolism by the pathogen or host, replication orintegration of the pathogen's genome, establishment or spread ofinfection in the host, or assembly of the next generation of pathogen.Alternatively, the protein may be a tumor-associated protein or anautoimmune disease-associated protein.

In one embodiment, the target mRNA molecule of the invention specifiesthe amino acid sequence of an endogenous protein (i.e. a protein presentin the genome of a cell or organism). In another embodiment, the targetmRNA molecule of the invention specifies the amino acid sequence of aheterologous protein expressed in a recombinant cell or a geneticallyaltered organism. In another embodiment, the target mRNA molecule of theinvention specifies the amino acid sequence of a protein encoded by atransgene (i.e., a gene construct inserted at an ectopic site in thegenome of the cell). In yet another embodiment, the target mRNA moleculeof the invention specifies the amino acid sequence of a protein encodedby a pathogen genome which is capable of infecting a cell or an organismfrom which the cell is derived.

By inhibiting the expression of such proteins, valuable informationregarding the function of said proteins and therapeutic benefits whichmay be obtained from said inhibition may be obtained.

In one embodiment, the nanoparticles of this invention comprises one ormore siRNA molecules to silence a PDGF beta gene, Erb-B gene, Src gene,CRK gene, GRB2 gene, RAS gene, MEKK gene, INK gene, RAF gene, Erk1/2gene, PCNA(p21) gene, MYB gene, JUN gene, FOS gene, BCL-2 gene, Cyclin Dgene, VEGF gene, EGFR gene, Cyclin A gene, Cyclin E gene, WNT-1 gene,beta-catenin gene, c-MET gene, PKC gene, Skp2 gene, kinesin spindleprotein gene, Bcr-Abl gene, Stat3 gene, cSrc gene, PKC gene, Bax gene,Bcl-2 gene, EGFR gene, VEGF gene, myc gene, NFKB gene, STAT3 gene,survivin gene, Her2/Neu gene, topoisomerase I gene, PLK1 gene, proteinkinase 3 gene, CD31 gene, IGF-1 gene, topoisomerase II alpha gene,mutations in the p73 gene, mutations in the p21 (WAF 1/CIP 1) gene,mutations in the p27(KIP1) gene, mutations in the PPM1D gene, mutationsin the RAS gene, mutations in the caveolin I gene, mutations in the MIBI gene, mutations in the MTAI gene, mutations in the M68 gene, mutationsin tumor suppressor genes, mutations in the p53 tumor suppressor gene,mutations in the p53 family member DN-p63, mutations in the pRb tumorsuppressor gene, mutations in the APC1 tumor suppressor gene, mutationsin the BRCA1 tumor suppressor gene, mutations in the PTEN tumorsuppressor gene, mLL fusiongene, BCRIABL fusion gene, TEL/AML1 fusiongene, EWS/FLI1 fusion gene, TLS/FUS1 fusion gene, PAX3/FKHR fusion gene,AML1/ETO fusion gene, alpha v-integrin gene, Fit-i receptor gene,tubulin gene, Human Papilloma Virus gene, a gene required for HumanPapilloma Virus replication, Human Immunodeficiency Virus gene, a generequired for Human Immunodeficiency Virus replication, Hepatitis A Virusgene, a gene required for Hepatitis A Virus replication, Hepatitis BVirus gene, a gene required for Hepatitis B Virus replication, HepatitisC Virus gene, a gene required for Hepatitis C Virus replication,Hepatitis D Virus gene, a gene required for Hepatitis D Virusreplication, Hepatitis E Virus gene, a gene required for Hepatitis BVirus replication, Hepatitis F Virus gene, a gene required for HepatitisF Virus replication, Hepatitis G Virus gene, a gene required forHepatitis G Virus replication, Hepatitis H Virus gene, a gene requiredfor Hepatitis H Virus replication, Respiratory Syncytial Virus gene, agene that is required for Respiratory Syncytial Virus replication,Herpes Simplex Virus gene, a gene that is required for Herpes SimplexVirus replication, herpes Cytomegalovirus gene, a gene that is requiredfor herpes Cytomegalovirus replication, herpes Epstein Barr Virus gene,a gene that is required for herpes Epstein Barr Virus replication,Kaposi's Sarcoma-associated Herpes Virus gene, a gene that is requiredfor Kaposi's Sarcoma-associated Herpes Virus replication, JC Virus gene,human gene that is required for JC Virus replication, myxovirus gene, agene that is required for myxovirus gene replication, rhinovirus gene, agene that is required for rhinovirus replication, coronavirus gene, agene that is required for coronavirus replication, West Nile Virus gene,a gene that is required for West Nile Virus replication, St. LouisEncephalitis gene, a gene that is required for St. Louis Encephalitisreplication, Tick-borne encephalitis virus gene, a gene that is requiredfor Tick-borne encephalitis virus replication, Murray Valleyencephalitis virus gene, a gene that is required for Murray Valleyencephalitis virus replication, dengue virus gene, a gene that isrequired for dengue virus gene replication, Simian Virus 40 gene, a genethat is required for Simian Virus 40 replication, Human T CellLymphotropic Virus gene, a gene that is required for Human T CellLymphotropic Virus replication, Moloney-Murine Leukemia Virus gene, agene that is required for Moloney-Murine Leukemia Virus replication,encephalomyocarditis virus gene, a gene that is required forencephalomyocarditis virus replication, measles virus gene, a gene thatis required for measles virus replication, Vericella zoster virus gene,a gene that is required for Vericella zoster virus replication,adenovirus gene, a gene that is required for adenovirus replication,yellow fever virus gene, a gene that is required for yellow fever virusreplication, poliovirus gene, a gene that is required for poliovirusreplication, poxvirus gene, a gene that is required for poxvirusreplication, plasmodium gene, a gene that is required for plasmodiumgene replication, Mycobacterium ulcerans gene, a gene that is requiredfor Mycobacterium ulcerans replication, Mycobacterium tuberculosis gene,a gene that is required for Mycobacterium tuberculosis replication,Mycobacterium leprae gene, -185-a gene that is required forMycobacterium leprae replication, Staphylococcus aureus gene, a genethat is required for Staphylococcus aureus replication, Streptococcuspneumoniae gene, a gene that is required for Streptococcus pneumoniaereplication, Streptococcus pyogenes gene, a gene that is required forStreptococcus pyogenes replication, Chiamydia pneumoniae gene, a genethat is required for Chiamydia pneumoniae replication, Mycoplasmapneumoniae gene, a gene that is required for Mycoplasma pneumoniaereplication, an integrin gene, a selectin gene, complement system gene,chemokine gene, chemokine receptor gene, GCSF gene, Gro1 gene, Gro2gene, Gro3 gene, PF4 gene, MIG gene, Pro-Platelet Basic Protein gene,MIP-11 gene, MIP-1J gene, RANTES gene, MCP-1 gene, MCP-2 gene, MCP-3gene, CMBKR1 gene, CMBKR2 gene, CMBKR3 gene, CMBKR5v, AIF-1 gene, 1-3 09gene, a gene to a component of an ion channel, a gene to aneurotransmitter receptor, a gene to a neurotransmitter ligand,amyloid-family gene, presenilin gene, HD gene, DRPLA gene, SCA1 gene,SCA2 gene, MJD1 gene, CACNL1A4 gene, SCA7 gene, SCA8 gene, allele genefound in LOH cells, or one allele gene of a polymorphic gene. Examplesof relevant siRNA molecules to silence genes and methods of making siRNAmolecules can be found from commercial sources such as Dharmacon or fromthe following patent applications: US2005017667, WO2006066158,WO2006078278, U.S. Pat. No. 7,056,704, U.S. Pat. No. 7,078,196, U.S.Pat. No. 5,898,031, U.S. Pat. No. 6,107,094, EP 1144623, EU 1144623.While a number of specific gene silencing targets are listed, this listis merely illustrative and other siRNA molecules could also be used withthe nanoparticles of this invention.

In one embodiment, the nanoparticles of this invention comprise an siRNAmolecule having RNAi activity against an RNA, wherein the siRNA moleculecomprises a sequence complementary to any RNA having coding ornon-encoding sequence, such as those sequences referred to by GenBankAccession Nos. described in Table V of PCT/US03/05028 (International PCTPublication No. WO 03/4654) or otherwise known in the art.

In one embodiment, the nanoparticles of this invention comprise an siRNAmolecule which silences the vascular endothelial growth factor gene. Inanother embodiment, the nanoparticles of this invention comprise ansiRNA molecule which silences the vascular endothelial growth factorreceptor gene.

In another embodiment, the nanoparticles of this invention comprise ansiRNA molecule, wherein the sequence of the siRNA molecule iscomplementary to tumor-related targets, including, but not limited to,hypoxia-inducible factor-1 (HIF-1), which is found in human metastaticprostate PC3-M cancer cells (Mol Carcinog. 2008 Jan. 31 [Epub ahead ofprint]); the HIF-1 downstream target gene (Mol Carcinog. 2008 Jan. 31[Epub ahead of print]), mitogen-activated protein kinases (MAPKs),hepatocyte growth factor (HGF), interleukin 12p70 (IL12),glucocorticoid-induced tumor necrosis factor receptor (GITR),intercellular adhesion molecule 1 (ICAM-1), neurotrophin-3 (NT-3),interleukin 17 (IL17), interleukin 18 binding protein a (IL18Bpa) andepithelial-neutrophil activating peptide (ENA78) (see, e.g., “Cytokineprofiling of prostatic fluid from cancerous prostate glands identifiescytokines associated with extent of tumor and inflammation”, TheProstate Early view Published Online: 24 Mar. 2008); PSMA (see, e.g.,“Cell-Surface labeling and internalization by a fluorescent inhibitor ofprostate-specific membrane antigen” The Prostate Early view PublishedOnline: 24 Mar. 2008); Androgen receptor (AR), keratin, epithelialmembrane antigen, EGF receptor, and E cadherin (see, e.g.,“Characterization of PacMetUT1, a recently isolated human prostatecancer cell line”); peroxisomes proliferators-activated receptor γ(PPARγ; see e.g., The Prostate Volume 68, Issue 6, Date: 1 May 2008,Pages: 588-598); the receptor for advanced glycation end products (RAGE)and the advanced glycation end products (AGE), (see, e.g., “V domain ofRAGE interacts with AGEs on prostate carcinoma cells” The Prostate Earlyview Published Online: 26 Feb. 2008); the receptor tyrosine kinaseerb-B2 (Her2/neu), hepatocyte growth factor receptor (Met), transforminggrowth factor-beta 1 receptor (TGFβR1), nuclear factor kappa B (NFκB),Jagged-1, Sonic hedgehog (Shh), Matrix metalloproteinases (MMPs, esp.MMP-7), Endothelin receptor type A (ET_(A)), Endothelin-1 (ET-1),Nuclear receptor subfamily 3, group C, member 1 (NR3C1), Nuclearreceptor co-activator 1 (NCOA1), NCOA2, NCOA3, E1A binding protein p300(EP300), CREB binding protein (CREBBP), Cyclin G associated kinase(GAK), Gelsolin (GSN), Aldo-keto reductase family 1, member C1 (AKR1C1),AKR1C2, AKR1C3, Neurotensin (NTS), Enolase 2 (ENO2), Chromogranin B(CHGB, secretogranin 1), Secretagogin (SCGN, or EF-hand calcium bindingprotein), Dopa decarboxylase (DDC, or aromatic L-amino aciddecarboxylase), steroid receptor co-activator-1 (SRC-1), SRC-2 (a.k.a.TIF2), SRC-3 (a.k.a. AIB-1) (see, e.g., “Longitudinal analysis ofandrogen deprivation of prostate cancer cells identifies pathways toandrogen independence” The Prostate Early view Published Online: 26 Feb.2008); estrogen receptors (ERα, ERβ or GPR30) (see, e.g., The ProstateVolume 68, Issue 5, Pages 508-516); the melanoma cell adhesion molecule(MCAM) (see, e.g., The Prostate Volume 68, Issue 4, Pages 418-426;angiogenic factors (such as vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF)and erythropoietin), glucose transporters (such as GLUT1),BCL2/adenovirus E1B 19 kDa interacting protein 3 (BNIP3) (see, e.g., TheProstate Volume 68, Issue 3, Pages 336-343); types 1 and 2 5α-reductase(see, e.g., The Journal of Urology Volume 179, Issue 4, Pages1235-1242); ERG and ETV1, prostate-specific antigen (PSA),prostate-specific membrane antigen (PSMA), prostate stem cell antigen(PSCA), α-Methylacyl coenzyme A racemase (AMACR), PCA3^(DD3),glutathione-S-transferase, pi 1 (GSTP1), p16, ADP-ribosylation factor(ARF), O-6-methylguanine-DNA methyltransferase (MGMT), human telomerasereverse transcriptase (hTERT), early prostate cancer antigen (EPCA),human kallikrein 2 (HK2) and hepsin (see, e.g., The Journal of UrologyVolume 178, Issue 6, Pages 2252-2259); bromodomain containing 2 (BRD2),eukaryotic translation initiation factor 4 gamma, 1 (eIF4G1), ribosomalprotein L13a (RPL13a), and ribosomal protein L22 (RPL22) (see, e.g., NEngl J Med 353 (2005), p. 1224); HER2/neu, Derlin-1, ERBB2, AKT,cyclooxygenase-2 (COX-2), PSMD3, CRKRS, PERLD1, and C17ORF37, PPP4C,PARN, ATP6V0C, C16orf14, GBL, HAGH, ITFG3, MGC13114, MRPS34, NDUFB10,NMRAL1, NTHL1, NUBP2, POLR3K, RNPS1, STUB1, TBL3, and USP7. All of thereferences described herein are incorporated herein by reference intheir entireties.

Thus, in one embodiment, the invention comprises a nanoparticlecomprising a low molecular weight PSMA ligand, a biodegradable polymer,a stealth polymer, and an siRNA molecule. In one embodiment, theinvention comprises a nanoparticle comprising a low molecular weightPSMA ligand, a biodegradable polymer, a stealth component, and an siRNAmolecule that silences the vascular endothelial growth factor gene. Inone embodiment, the invention comprises a nanoparticle comprising a lowmolecular weight PSMA ligand, a biodegradable polymer, a stealthcomponent, and an siRNA molecule that silences the vascular endothelialgrowth factor receptor gene. In another embodiment, the inventioncomprises a nanoparticle comprising a low molecular weight PSMA ligand,PLGA, polyethylene glycol, and an siRNA molecule. In one embodiment, theinvention comprises a nanoparticle comprising a low molecular weightPSMA ligand, a biodegradable polymer, a stealth component, and an siRNAmolecule wherein the nanoparticle can selectively accumulate in theprostate or in the vascular endothelial tissue surrounding a cancer. Inone embodiment, the invention comprises a nanoparticle comprising a lowmolecular weight PSMA ligand, a biodegradable polymer, a stealthcomponent, and an siRNA molecule wherein the nanoparticle canselectively accumulate in the prostate or in the vascular endothelialtissue surrounding a cancer and wherein the nanoparticle can beendocytosed by a PSMA expressing cell.

In another embodiment, the siRNA that is incorporated into thenanoparticle of the invention are those that treat prostate cancer, suchas those disclosed in U.S. application Ser. No. 11/021,159 (siRNAsequence is complementary to SEQ ID NO:8: gaaggccagu uguauggac (SEQ IDNO: 1 of the present application), and U.S. application Ser. No.11/349,473 (discloses siRNAs that bind to a region from nucleotide 3023to 3727 of SEQ ID NO: 1). Both of these references are incorporatedherein by reference in their entirety.

In another embodiment, the therapeutic agents of the nanoparticles ofthe invention include RNAs that can be used to treat cancer, such asanti-sense mRNAs and microRNAs. Examples of microRNAs that can be usedas therapeutic agents for the treatment of cancer include thosedisclosed in Nature, 435 (7043): 828-833; Naturem 435 (7043): 839-843;and Nature, 435 (7043): 834-838, all of which are incorporated herein byreference in their entireties.

Methods of Treatment

In some embodiments, targeted particles in accordance with the presentinvention may be used to treat, alleviate, ameliorate, relieve, delayonset of, inhibit progression of, reduce severity of, and/or reduceincidence of one or more symptoms or features of a disease, disorder,and/or condition. In some embodiments, inventive targeted particles maybe used to treat cancer and/or cancer cells. In certain embodiments,inventive targeted particles may be used to treat any cancer whereinPSMA is expressed on the surface of cancer cells or in the tumorneovasculature in a subject in need thereof, including theneovasculature of prostate or non-prostate solid tumors. Examples of thePSMA-related indication include, but are not limited to, prostatecancer, non-small cell lung cancer, colorectal carcinoma, andglioblastoma.

The term “cancer” includes pre-malignant as well as malignant cancers.Cancers include, but are not limited to, prostate, gastric cancer,colorectal cancer, skin cancer, e.g., melanomas or basal cellcarcinomas, lung cancer, cancers of the head and neck, bronchus cancer,pancreatic cancer, urinary bladder cancer, brain or central nervoussystem cancer, peripheral nervous system cancer, esophageal cancer,cancer of the oral cavity or pharynx, liver cancer, kidney cancer,testicular cancer, biliary tract cancer, small bowel or appendix cancer,salivary gland cancer, thyroid gland cancer, adrenal gland cancer,osteosarcoma, chondrosarcoma, cancer of hematological tissues, and thelike. “Cancer cells” can be in the form of a tumor, exist alone within asubject (e.g., leukemia cells), or be cell lines derived from a cancer.

Cancer can be associated with a variety of physical symptoms. Symptomsof cancer generally depend on the type and location of the tumor. Forexample, lung cancer can cause coughing, shortness of breath, and chestpain, while colon cancer often causes diarrhea, constipation, and bloodin the stool. However, to give but a few examples, the followingsymptoms are often generally associated with many cancers: fever,chills, night sweats, cough, dyspnea, weight loss, loss of appetite,anorexia, nausea, vomiting, diarrhea, anemia, jaundice, hepatomegaly,hemoptysis, fatigue, malaise, cognitive dysfunction, depression,hormonal disturbances, neutropenia, pain, non-healing sores, enlargedlymph nodes, peripheral neuropathy, and sexual dysfunction.

In one aspect of the invention, a method for the treatment of cancer(e.g. prostate cancer) is provided. In some embodiments, the treatmentof cancer comprises administering a therapeutically effective amount ofinventive targeted particles to a subject in need thereof, in suchamounts and for such time as is necessary to achieve the desired result.In certain embodiments of the present invention a “therapeuticallyeffective amount” of an inventive targeted particle is that amounteffective for treating, alleviating, ameliorating, relieving, delayingonset of, inhibiting progression of, reducing severity of, and/orreducing incidence of one or more symptoms or features of cancer.

In one aspect of the invention, a method for administering inventivecompositions to a subject suffering from cancer (e.g. prostate cancer)is provided. In some embodiments, particles to a subject in such amountsand for such time as is necessary to achieve the desired result (i.e.treatment of cancer). In certain embodiments of the present invention a“therapeutically effective amount” of an inventive targeted particle isthat amount effective for treating, alleviating, ameliorating,relieving, delaying onset of, inhibiting progression of, reducingseverity of, and/or reducing incidence of one or more symptoms orfeatures of cancer.

Inventive therapeutic protocols involve administering a therapeuticallyeffective amount of an inventive targeted particle to a healthyindividual (i.e., a subject who does not display any symptoms of cancerand/or who has not been diagnosed with cancer). For example, healthyindividuals may be “immunized” with an inventive targeted particle priorto development of cancer and/or onset of symptoms of cancer; at riskindividuals (e.g., patients who have a family history of cancer;patients carrying one or more genetic mutations associated withdevelopment of cancer; patients having a genetic polymorphism associatedwith development of cancer; patients infected by a virus associated withdevelopment of cancer; patients with habits and/or lifestyles associatedwith development of cancer; etc.) can be treated substantiallycontemporaneously with (e.g., within 48 hours, within 24 hours, orwithin 12 hours of) the onset of symptoms of cancer. Of courseindividuals known to have cancer may receive inventive treatment at anytime.

In other embodiments, the nanoparticles of the present invention can beused to inhibit the growth of cancer cells, e.g., prostate cancer cells.As used herein, the term “inhibits growth of cancer cells” or“inhibiting growth of cancer cells” refers to any slowing of the rate ofcancer cell proliferation and/or migration, arrest of cancer cellproliferation and/or migration, or killing of cancer cells, such thatthe rate of cancer cell growth is reduced in comparison with theobserved or predicted rate of growth of an untreated control cancercell. The term “inhibits growth” can also refer to a reduction in sizeor disappearance of a cancer cell or tumor, as well as to a reduction inits metastatic potential. Preferably, such an inhibition at the cellularlevel may reduce the size, deter the growth, reduce the aggressiveness,or prevent or inhibit metastasis of a cancer in a patient. Those skilledin the art can readily determine, by any of a variety of suitableindicia, whether cancer cell growth is inhibited.

Inhibition of cancer cell growth may be evidenced, for example, byarrest of cancer cells in a particular phase of the cell cycle, e.g.,arrest at the G2/M phase of the cell cycle Inhibition of cancer cellgrowth can also be evidenced by direct or indirect measurement of cancercell or tumor size. In human cancer patients, such measurementsgenerally are made using well known imaging methods such as magneticresonance imaging, computerized axial tomography and X-rays. Cancer cellgrowth can also be determined indirectly, such as by determining thelevels of circulating carcinoembryonic antigen, prostate specificantigen or other cancer-specific antigens that are correlated withcancer cell growth. Inhibition of cancer growth is also generallycorrelated with prolonged survival and/or increased health andwell-being of the subject.

Pharmaceutical Compositions

As used herein, the term “pharmaceutically acceptable carrier” means anon-toxic, inert solid, semi-solid or liquid filler, diluent,encapsulating material or formulation auxiliary of any type. Remington'sPharmaceutical Sciences, Ed. by Gennaro, Mack Publishing, Easton, Pa.,1995 discloses various carriers used in formulating pharmaceuticalcompositions and known techniques for the preparation thereof. Someexamples of materials which can serve as pharmaceutically acceptablecarriers include, but are not limited to, sugars such as lactose,glucose, and sucrose; starches such as corn starch and potato starch;cellulose and its derivatives such as sodium carboxymethyl cellulose,ethyl cellulose, and cellulose acetate; powdered tragacanth; malt;gelatin; talc; excipients such as cocoa butter and suppository waxes;oils such as peanut oil, cottonseed oil; safflower oil; sesame oil;olive oil; corn oil and soybean oil; glycols such as propylene glycol;esters such as ethyl oleate and ethyl laurate; agar; detergents such asTWEEN™ 80; buffering agents such as magnesium hydroxide and aluminumhydroxide; alginic acid; pyrogen-free water; isotonic saline; Ringer'ssolution; ethyl alcohol; and phosphate buffer solutions, as well asother non-toxic compatible lubricants such as sodium lauryl sulfate andmagnesium stearate, as well as coloring agents, releasing agents,coating agents, sweetening, flavoring and perfuming agents,preservatives and antioxidants can also be present in the composition,according to the judgment of the formulator. If filtration or otherterminal sterilization methods are not feasible, the formulations can bemanufactured under aseptic conditions.

The pharmaceutical compositions of this invention can be administered toa patient by any means known in the art including oral and parenteralroutes. The term “patient,” as used herein, refers to humans as well asnon-humans, including, for example, mammals, birds, reptiles,amphibians, and fish. For instance, the non-humans may be mammals (e.g.,a rodent, a mouse, a rat, a rabbit, a monkey, a dog, a cat, a primate,or a pig). In certain embodiments parenteral routes are desirable sincethey avoid contact with the digestive enzymes that are found in thealimentary canal. According to such embodiments, inventive compositionsmay be administered by injection (e.g., intravenous, subcutaneous orintramuscular, intraperitoneal injection), rectally, vaginally,topically (as by powders, creams, ointments, or drops), or by inhalation(as by sprays).

In a particular embodiment, the nanoparticles of the present inventionare administered to a subject in need thereof systemically, e.g., by IVinfusion or injection.

Injectable preparations, for example, sterile injectable aqueous oroleaginous suspensions may be formulated according to the known artusing suitable dispersing or wetting agents and suspending agents. Thesterile injectable preparation may also be a sterile injectablesolution, suspension, or emulsion in a nontoxic parenterally acceptablediluent or solvent, for example, as a solution in 1,3-butanediol. Amongthe acceptable vehicles and solvents that may be employed are water,Ringer's solution, U.S.P., and isotonic sodium chloride solution. Inaddition, sterile, fixed oils are conventionally employed as a solventor suspending medium. For this purpose any bland fixed oil can beemployed including synthetic mono- or diglycerides. In addition, fattyacids such as oleic acid are used in the preparation of injectables. Inone embodiment, the inventive conjugate is suspended in a carrier fluidcomprising 1% (w/v) sodium carboxymethyl cellulose and 0.1% (v/v) TWEEN™80. The injectable formulations can be sterilized, for example, byfiltration through a bacteria-retaining filter, or by incorporatingsterilizing agents in the form of sterile solid compositions which canbe dissolved or dispersed in sterile water or other sterile injectablemedium prior to use.

Compositions for rectal or vaginal administration may be suppositorieswhich can be prepared by mixing the inventive conjugate with suitablenon-irritating excipients or carriers such as cocoa butter, polyethyleneglycol, or a suppository wax which are solid at ambient temperature butliquid at body temperature and therefore melt in the rectum or vaginalcavity and release the inventive conjugate.

Dosage forms for topical or transdermal administration of an inventivepharmaceutical composition include ointments, pastes, creams, lotions,gels, powders, solutions, sprays, inhalants, or patches. The inventiveconjugate is admixed under sterile conditions with a pharmaceuticallyacceptable carrier and any needed preservatives or buffers as may berequired. Ophthalmic formulations, ear drops, and eye drops are alsocontemplated as being within the scope of this invention. The ointments,pastes, creams, and gels may contain, in addition to the inventiveconjugates of this invention, excipients such as animal and vegetablefats, oils, waxes, paraffins, starch, tragacanth, cellulose derivatives,polyethylene glycols, silicones, bentonites, silicic acid, talc, andzinc oxide, or mixtures thereof. Transdermal patches have the addedadvantage of providing controlled delivery of a compound to the body.Such dosage forms can be made by dissolving or dispensing the inventiveconjugates in a proper medium. Absorption enhancers can also be used toincrease the flux of the compound across the skin. The rate can becontrolled by either providing a rate controlling membrane or bydispersing the inventive conjugates in a polymer matrix or gel.

Powders and sprays can contain, in addition to the inventive conjugatesof this invention, excipients such as lactose, talc, silicic acid,aluminum hydroxide, calcium silicates, and polyamide powder, or mixturesthereof. Sprays can additionally contain customary propellants such aschlorofluorohydrocarbons.

When administered orally, the inventive nanoparticles can be, but arenot necessarily, encapsulated. A variety of suitable encapsulationsystems are known in the art (“Microcapsules and Nanoparticles inMedicine and Pharmacy,” Edited by Doubrow, M., CRC Press, Boca Raton,1992; Mathiowitz and Langer J. Control. Release 5:13, 1987; Mathiowitzet al. Reactive Polymers 6:275, 1987; Mathiowitz et al. J. Appl. PolymerSci. 35:755, 1988; Langer Ace. Chem. Res. 33:94, 2000; Langer J.Control. Release 62:7, 1999; Uhrich et al. Chem. Rev. 99:3181, 1999;Zhou et al. J. Control. Release 75:27, 2001; and Hanes et al. Pharm.Biotechnol. 6:389, 1995). The inventive conjugates may be encapsulatedwithin biodegradable polymeric microspheres or liposomes. Examples ofnatural and synthetic polymers useful in the preparation ofbiodegradable microspheres include carbohydrates such as alginate,cellulose, polyhydroxyalkanoates, polyamides, polyphosphazenes,polypropylfumarates, polyethers, polyacetals, polycyanoacrylates,biodegradable polyurethanes, polycarbonates, polyanhydrides,polyhydroxyacids, poly(ortho esters), and other biodegradablepolyesters. Examples of lipids useful in liposome production includephosphatidyl compounds, such as phosphatidylglycerol,phosphatidylcholine, phosphatidylserine, phosphatidylethanolamine,sphingolipids, cerebrosides, and gangliosides.

Pharmaceutical compositions for oral administration can be liquid orsolid. Liquid dosage forms suitable for oral administration of inventivecompositions include pharmaceutically acceptable emulsions,microemulsions, solutions, suspensions, syrups, and elixirs. In additionto an encapsulated or unencapsulated conjugate, the liquid dosage formsmay contain inert diluents commonly used in the art such as, forexample, water or other solvents, solubilizing agents and emulsifierssuch as ethyl alcohol, isopropyl alcohol, ethyl carbonate, ethylacetate, benzyl alcohol, benzyl benzoate, propylene glycol, 1,3-butyleneglycol, dimethylformamide, oils (in particular, cottonseed, groundnut,corn, germ, olive, castor, and sesame oils), glycerol,tetrahydrofurfuryl alcohol, polyethylene glycols and fatty acid estersof sorbitan, and mixtures thereof. Besides inert diluents, the oralcompositions can also include adjuvants, wetting agents, emulsifying andsuspending agents, sweetening, flavoring, and perfuming agents. As usedherein, the term “adjuvant” refers to any compound which is anonspecific modulator of the immune response. In certain embodiments,the adjuvant stimulates the immune response. Any adjuvant may be used inaccordance with the present invention. A large number of adjuvantcompounds is known in the art (Allison Dev. Biol. Stand, 92:3-11, 1998;Unkeless et al. Annu Rev. Immunol. 6:251-281, 1998; and Phillips et al.Vaccine 10:151-158, 1992).

Solid dosage forms for oral administration include capsules, tablets,pills, powders, and granules. In such solid dosage forms, theencapsulated or unencapsulated conjugate is mixed with at least oneinert, pharmaceutically acceptable excipient or carrier such as sodiumcitrate or dicalcium phosphate and/or (a) fillers or extenders such asstarches, lactose, sucrose, glucose, mannitol, and silicic acid, (b)binders such as, for example, carboxymethylcellulose, alginates,gelatin, polyvinylpyrrolidinone, sucrose, and acacia, (c) humectantssuch as glycerol, (d) disintegrating agents such as agar-agar, calciumcarbonate, potato or tapioca starch, alginic acid, certain silicates,and sodium carbonate, (e) solution retarding agents such as paraffin,(f) absorption accelerators such as quaternary ammonium compounds, (g)wetting agents such as, for example, cetyl alcohol and glycerolmonostearate, (h) absorbents such as kaolin and bentonite clay, and (i)lubricants such as talc, calcium stearate, magnesium stearate, solidpolyethylene glycols, sodium lauryl sulfate, and mixtures thereof. Inthe case of capsules, tablets, and pills, the dosage form may alsocomprise buffering agents.

Solid compositions of a similar type may also be employed as fillers insoft and hard-filled gelatin capsules using such excipients as lactoseor milk sugar as well as high molecular weight polyethylene glycols andthe like. The solid dosage forms of tablets, dragees, capsules, pills,and granules can be prepared with coatings and shells such as entericcoatings and other coatings well known in the pharmaceutical formulatingart.

It will be appreciated that the exact dosage of the PSMA-targetedparticle is chosen by the individual physician in view of the patient tobe treated, in general, dosage and administration are adjusted toprovide an effective amount of the PSMA-targeted particle to the patientbeing treated. As used herein, the “effective amount” of a PSMA-targetedparticle refers to the amount necessary to elicit the desired biologicalresponse. As will be appreciated by those of ordinary skill in this art,the effective amount of PSMA-targeted particle may vary depending onsuch factors as the desired biological endpoint, the drug to bedelivered, the target tissue, the route of administration, etc. Forexample, the effective amount of PSMA-targeted particle containing ananti-cancer drug might be the amount that results in a reduction intumor size by a desired amount over a desired period of time. Additionalfactors which may be taken into account include the severity of thedisease state; age, weight and gender of the patient being treated;diet, time and frequency of administration; drug combinations; reactionsensitivities; and tolerance/response to therapy.

The nanoparticles of the invention may be formulated in dosage unit formfor ease of administration and uniformity of dosage. The expression“dosage unit form” as used herein refers to a physically discrete unitof nanoparticle appropriate for the patient to be treated. It will beunderstood, however, that the total daily usage of the compositions ofthe present invention will be decided by the attending physician withinthe scope of sound medical judgment. For any nanoparticle, thetherapeutically effective dose can be estimated initially either in cellculture assays or in animal models, usually mice, rabbits, dogs, orpigs. The animal model is also used to achieve a desirable concentrationrange and route of administration. Such information can then be used todetermine useful doses and routes for administration in humans.Therapeutic efficacy and toxicity of naoparticles can be determined bystandard pharmaceutical procedures in cell cultures or experimentalanimals, e.g., ED₅₀ (the dose is therapeutically effective in 50% of thepopulation) and LD₅₀ (the dose is lethal to 50% of the population). Thedose ratio of toxic to therapeutic effects is the therapeutic index, andit can be expressed as the ratio, LD₅₀/ED₅₀. Pharmaceutical compositionswhich exhibit large therapeutic indices may be useful in someembodiments. The data obtained from cell culture assays and animalstudies can be used in formulating a range of dosage for human use.

The present invention also provides any of the above-mentionedcompositions in kits, optionally with instructions for administering anyof the compositions described herein by any suitable technique aspreviously described, for example, orally, intravenously, pump orimplantable delivery device, or via another known route of drugdelivery. “Instructions” can define a component of promotion, andtypically involve written instructions on or associated with packagingof compositions of the invention. Instructions also can include any oralor electronic instructions provided in any manner. The “kit” typicallydefines a package including any one or a combination of the compositionsof the invention and the instructions, but can also include thecomposition of the invention and instructions of any form that areprovided in connection with the composition in a manner such that aclinical professional will clearly recognize that the instructions areto be associated with the specific composition.

The kits described herein may also contain one or more containers, whichmay contain the inventive composition and other ingredients aspreviously described. The kits also may contain instructions for mixing,diluting, and/or administrating the compositions of the invention insome cases. The kits also can include other containers with one or moresolvents, surfactants, preservative and/or diluents (e.g., normal saline(0.9% NaCl), or 5% dextrose) as well as containers for mixing, dilutingor administering the components in a sample or to a subject in need ofsuch treatment.

The compositions of the kit may be provided as any suitable form, forexample, as liquid solutions or as dried powders. When the compositionprovided is a dry powder, the composition may be reconstituted by theaddition of a suitable solvent, which may also be provided. Inembodiments where liquid forms of the composition are used, the liquidform may be concentrated or ready to use. The solvent will depend on thenanoparticle and the mode of use or administration. Suitable solventsfor drug compositions are well known, for example as previouslydescribed, and are available in the literature. The solvent will dependon the nanoparticle and the mode of use or administration.

The invention also involves, in another aspect, promotion of theadministration of any of the nanoparticle described herein. In someembodiments, one or more compositions of the invention are promoted forthe prevention or treatment of various diseases such as those describedherein via administration of any one of the compositions of the presentinvention. As used herein, “promoted” includes all methods of doingbusiness including methods of education, hospital and other clinicalinstruction, pharmaceutical industry activity including pharmaceuticalsales, and any advertising or other promotional activity includingwritten, oral and electronic communication of any form, associated withcompositions of the invention.

The following examples are intended to illustrate certain embodiments ofthe present invention, but do not exemplify the full scope of theinvention.

EXAMPLES

The invention is further illustrated by the following examples. Theexamples should not be construed as further limiting.

Example 1 Synthesis of a Low-Molecular Weight PSMA Ligand (GL2)

(10.67 mmol) of the starting compound was dissolved in 150 mL ofanhydrous DMF. To this solution was added allyl bromide (6.3 mL, 72mmol) and K₂CO₃ (1.47 g, 10.67 mmol). The reaction was stirred for 2 h,the solvent was removed, the crude material was dissolved in AcOEt andwashed with H₂O until pH neutral. The organic phase was dried with MgSO₄(anhydrous) and evaporated to give 5.15 g (95%) of material. (TLC inCH₂Cl₂:MeOH 20:1 Rf=0.9, started compound Rf=0.1, revealed withninhydrin and uv light).

To a solution of the compound (5.15 g, 10.13 mmol) in CH₃CN (50 mL) wasadded Et₂NH (20 mL, 0.19 mol). The reaction was stirred at roomtemperature for 40 min. The solvent was removed and the compound waspurified by column chromatography (Hexane:AcOEt 3:2) to give 2.6 g(90%). (TLC in CH₂Cl₂:MeOH 10:1 Rf=0.4, revealed with ninhydrin (thecompound has a violet color). ¹H-NMR (CDCl₃, 300 MHz) δ 5.95-5.85 (m,1H, —CH₂CHCH₂), 5.36-5.24 (m, 2H, —CH₂CHCH₂), 4.62-4.60 (m, 3H,—CH₂CHCH₂, NHBoc), 3.46 (t, 1H, CH (Lys)), 3.11-3.07 (m, 2H, CH₂NHBoc),1.79 (bs, 2H, NH₂), 1.79-1.43 (m, 6H, 3CH₂ (Lys)), 1.43 (s, 9H, Boc).

To a stirred solution of diallyl glutamate (3.96 g, 15 mmol) andtriphosgene (1.47 g, 4.95 mmol) in CH₂Cl₂ (143 mL) at −78° C. was addedEt₃N (6.4 mL, 46 mmol) in CH₂Cl₂ (28 mL). The reaction mixture wasallowed to warm to room temperature and stirred for 1.5 h. The Lysinederivative (2.6 g, 9.09 mmol) in a solution of CH₂Cl₂ (36 mL) was thenadded at −78° C. and the reaction was stirred at room temperature for 12h. The solution was diluted with CH₂Cl₂, washed twice with H₂O, driedover MgSO₄ (anh.) and purified by column chromatography (Hexane:AcOEt3:1→2:1→AcOEt) to give 4 g (82%) (TLC in CH₂Cl₂:MeOH 20:1 Rf=0.3,revealed with ninhydrin). ¹H-NMR (CDCl₃, 300 MHz) δ 5.97-5.84 (m, 3H,3-CH₂CHCH₂), 5.50 (bt, 2H, 2NHurea), 5.36-5.20 (m, 6H, 3-CH₂CHCH₂), 4.81(bs, 1H, NHBoc), 4.68-4.40 (m, 8H, 3-CH₂CHCH₂, CH (Lys), CH (glu)),3.09-3.05 (m, 2H, CH₂NHBoc), 2.52-2.39 (m, 2H, CH₂ (glu.)), 2.25-2.14and 2.02-1.92 (2m, 2H, CH₂ (glu.)), 1.87-1.64 (m, 4H, 2CH₂ (Lys)),1.51-1.35 (m, 2H, CH₂ (Lys)), 1.44 (s, 9H, Boc).

To a solution of the compound (4 g, 7.42 mmol) in dry CH₂Cl₂ (40 mL) wasadded at 0° C. TFA (9 mL). The reaction was stirred at room temperaturefor 1 h. The solvent was removed under vacuum until complete dryness, togive 4.1 g (quantitative). (TLC in CH₂Cl₂:MeOH 20:1 Rf=0.1, revealedwith ninhydrin). ¹H-NMR (CDCl₃, 300 MHz) δ 6.27-6.16 (2d, 2H, 2NHurea),5.96-5.82 (m, 3H, 3-CH₂CHCH₂), 5.35-5.20 (m, 6H, 3-CH₂CHCH₂), 4.61-4.55(m, 6H, 3-CH₂CHCH₂), 4.46-4.41 (m, 2H, CH (Lys), CH (glu)), 2.99 (m, 2H,CH₂NHBoc), 2.46 (m, 2H, CH₂ (glu.)), 2.23-2.11 and 2.01-1.88 (2m, 2H,CH₂ (glu.)), 1.88-1.67 (m, 4H, 2CH₂ (Lys)), 1.45 (m, 2H, CH₂ (Lys)).

To a solution of the compound (2 g, 3.6 mmol) in DMF (anh.) (62 mL)under argon was added Pd(PPh₃)₄ (0.7 g, 0.6 mmol) and morpholine (5.4mL, 60.7 mmol) at 0° C. The reaction was stirred at room temperature for1 h. The solvent was removed. The crude product was washed twice withCH₂Cl₂, and then solved in H₂O. To this solution was added a dilutedsolution of NaOH (0.01 N) until the pH was very basic. The solvent wasremoved under reduced pressure. The solid was washed again with CH₂Cl₂,AcOEt, and a mixture of MeOH—CH₂Cl₂ (1:1), solved in H₂O and neutralizedwith Amberlite IR-120 H⁺ resin. The solvent was evaporated, and thecompound was precipitated with MeOH, to give 1 g (87%) of GL2. ¹H-NMR(D₂O, 300 MHz) δ 4.07 (m, 2H, CH (Lys), CH (glu)), 2.98 (m, 2H, CH₂NH₂),2.36 (m, 2H, CH₂ (glu.)), 2.08-2.00 (m, 1H, CH₂ (glu)), 1.93-1.60 (m,5H, CH₂ (glu.), 2CH₂ (Lys)), 1.41 (m, 2H, CH₂ (Lys)). Mass ESI: 320.47[M+H]⁺, 342.42 [M+Na⁺].

Example 2 Synthesis of a Low-Molecular Weight PSMA Ligand (GL1)

130 mg (0.258 mmol) of the starting compound was dissolved in 3 mL ofDMF (anh.) To this solution was added allyl bromide (150 μL, 1.72 mmol)and K₂CO₃ (41 mg, 0.3 mmol). The reaction was stirred for 1 h, thesolvent was removed, the crude product was dissolved in AcOEt and washedwith H₂O until pH neutral. The organic phase was dried with MgSO₄ (anh.)and evaporated to give 130 mg (93%). (TLC in CH₂Cl₂:MeOH 20:1 Rf=0.9,started compound Rf=0.1, revealed with ninhydrin and uv light). ¹H-NMR(CDCl₃, 300 MHz) δ 7.81-7.05 (12H, aromatics), 6.81 (bs, 1H, NHFmoc),5.93-5.81 (m, 1H, —CH₂CHCH₂), 5.35-5.24 (m, 2H, —CH₂CHCH₂), 5.00 (bd,1H, NHboc), 4.61-4.53 (m, 5H, —CH₂CHCH₂, CH₂ (Fmoc), CH (pheala.)), 4.28(t, 1H, CH (Fmoc)), 3.12-2.98 (m, 2H, CH₂ (pheala.), 1.44 (s, 9H, Boc).

To a solution of the compound (120 mg, 0.221 mmol) in dry CH₂Cl₂ (2 mL)was added at 0° C. TFA (1 mL). The reaction was stirred at roomtemperature for 1 h. The solvent was removed under vacuum, water wasadded and removed again, CH₂Cl₂ was added and removed again untilcomplete dryness to give 120 mg (quantitative). (TLC in CH₂Cl₂:MeOH 20:1Rf=0.1, revealed with ninhydrin and uv light). ¹H-NMR (CDCl₃, 300 MHz) δ7.80-7.00 (13H, aromatics, NHFmoc), 5.90-5.75 (m, 1H, —CH₂CHCH₂),5.35-5.19 (m, 3H, —CH₂CHCH₂, NHboc), 4.70-4.40 (2m, 5H, —CH₂CHCH₂, CH₂(Fmoc), CH (pheala.)), 4.20 (t, 1H, CH (Fmoc)), 3.40-3.05 (m, 2H, CH₂(pheala.)).

To a stirred solution of diallyl glutamate (110 mg, 0.42 mmol) andtriphosgene (43 mg, 0.14 mmol) in CH₂Cl₂ (4 mL) at −78° C. was addedEt₃N (180 μL, 1.3 mmol) in CH₂Cl₂ (0.8 mL). The reaction mixture wasallowed to warm to room temperature and stirred for 1.5 h. Thephenylalanine derivative (140 mg, 0.251 mmol) in a solution of CH₂Cl₂ (1mL) and Et₃N (70 μL, 0.5 mmol) was then added at −78° C. and thereaction was stirred at room temperature for 12 h. The solution wasdiluted with CH₂Cl₂, washed twice with H₂O, dried over MgSO₄ (anh.) andpurified by column chromatography (Hexane:AcOEt 3:1) to give 100 mg(57%) (TLC in CH₂Cl₂:MeOH 20:1 Rf=0.3, revealed with ninhydrin and uvlight). ¹H-NMR (CDCl₃, 300 MHz) δ 7.80-6.95 (13H, aromatics, NHFmoc),5.98-5.82 (m, 3H, 3-CH₂CHCH₂), 5.54 (bd, 1H, NHurea), 5.43-5.19 (m, 7H,3-CH₂CHCH₂, NHurea), 4.85-4.78 (m, 1H, CH (pheala.)), 4.67-4.50 (m, 9H,3-CH₂CHCH₂, CH₂ (Fmoc), CH (glu.)), 4.28 (t, 1H, CH (Fmoc)), 3.05 (d,2H, CH₂ (pheala.)), 2.53-2.33 (m, 2H, CH₂ (glu.)), 2.25-2.11 and1.98-1.80 (2m, 2H, CH₂ (glu.)).

To a solution of the starting material (60 mg, 0.086 mmol) in CH₃CN (1mL) was added Et₂NH (1 mL, 10 mmol). The reaction was stirred at roomtemperature for 40 min. The solvent was removed and the compound waspurified by column chromatography (Hexane:AcOEt 2:1) to give 35 mg(85%). (TLC in CH₂Cl₂:MeOH 10:1 Rf=0.5, started compound Rf=0.75,revealed with ninhydrin (the compound has a violet color) and uv light).¹H-NMR (CDCl₃, 300 MHz) δ 6.85 and 6.55 (2d, 4H, aromatics), 5.98-5.82(m, 3H, 3-CH₂CHCH₂), 5.56 (bd, 1H, NHurea), 5.44-5.18 (m, 7H,3-CH₂CHCH₂, NHurea), 4.79-4.72 (m, 1H, CH (pheala.)), 4.65-4.49 (m, 7H,3-CH₂CHCH₂, CH (glu.)), 3.64 (bs, 2H, NH₂), 3.02-2.89 (m, 2H, CH₂(pheala.)), 2.49-2.31 (m, 2H, CH₂ (glu.)), 2.20-2.09 and 1.91-1.78 (2m,2H, CH₂ (glu.)).

To a solution of the compound (50 mg, 0.105 mmol) in DMF (anh; 1.5 mL)under argon was added Pd(PPh₃)₄ (21 mg, 0.018 mmol) and morpholine (154μL, 1.77 mmol) at 0° C. The reaction was stirred at room temperature for1 h. The solvent was removed. The crude material was washed with CH₂Cl₂twice, and dissolved in H₂O. To this solution was added a dilutedsolution of NaOH (0.01 N) until the pH was very basic. The solvent wasremoved under reduced pressure. The solid was washed again with CH₂Cl₂,AcOEt, and mixture of MeOH—CH₂Cl₂ (1:1), solved in H₂O and neutralizedwith Amberlite IR-120 H⁺ resin. The solvent was evaporated and thecompound was precipitated with MeOH, to give 25 mg (67%) of GL1. ¹H-NMR(D₂O, 300 MHz) δ 7.08 and 6.79 (2d, 4H, aromatics), 4.21 (m, 1H, CH(pheala.)), 3.90 (m, 1H, CH (glu.)), 2.99 and 2.82 (2dd, 2H, CH₂((pheala.)), 2.22-2.11 (m, 2H, CH₂ (glu.)), 2.05-1.70 (2m, 2H, CH₂(glu.)). ¹³C-NMR (D₂O, 75 MHz) δ 176.8, 174.5, 173.9 (3 COO), 153.3(NHCONH), 138.8 (H₂N—C(Ph)), 124.5, 122.9, 110.9 (aromatics), 51.3 (CH(pheala.)), 49.8 (CH (glu.)), 31.8 (CH₂ (pheala.)), 28.4 and 23.6(2CH₂-glu.)). Mass ESI: 354.19 [M+H⁺], 376.23 [M+Na⁺].

Example 3 Nanoparticle Preparation

A non-limiting example of the preparation of the nanoparticles of theinvention can be prepared using the synthesis procedure shown in FIG.1B, wherein the ligand is, for example, GL1 or GL2. The urea-based PSMAinhibitor GL2, which has a free amino group located in a region notcritical for PSMA binding, is synthesized from commercially availablestarting materials Boc-Phe(4NHFmoc)-OH and diallyl glutamic acid inaccordance with the procedure shown in Scheme 1. The analog is attachedto a PLGA-PEG diblock copolymer having a carboxyl group at the freeterminus of the PEG using a standard conjugation chemistry, for examplethrough use of water-soluble carbodiimide EDC and N-hydroxysuccinimide.Nanoparticles are formed using nanoprecipitation: The polymer ligandconjugate is dissolved in a water miscible organic solvent together witha drug other agent for tracking particle uptake. Additionalnon-functionalized polymer can be included to modulate the ligandsurface density. The polymer solution is dispersed in an aqueous phaseand the resulting particles are collected by filtration. The particlescan be dried or immediately tested for cell uptake in vitro oranti-prostate tumor activity in vivo.

Using the procedure described above, a variety of target-specificstealth nanoparticles could be prepared, such as nanoparticlescomprising PEG, PLA or PLGA, the chemotherapeutics described herein, andGL1 or GL2. Specific examples of the nanoparticles that could beprepared are shown in the table below:

Biocompatible Targeting Therapeutic Agent Polymer Stealth Polymer Moietymitoxantrone PLGA PEG GL1 mitoxantrone PLA PEG GL1 mitoxantrone PGA PEGGL1 mitoxantrone PLGA PEG GL2 mitoxantrone PLA PEG GL2 mitoxantrone PGAPEG GL2 mitoxantrone PLGA PEG-DSPE GL1 mitoxantrone PLA PEG-DSPE GL1mitoxantrone PGA PEG-DSPE GL1 mitoxantrone PLGA PEG-DSPE GL2mitoxantrone PLA PEG-DSPE GL2 mitoxantrone PGA PEG-DSPE GL2 docetaxelPLGA PEG GL1 docetaxel PLA PEG GL1 docetaxel PGA PEG GL1 docetaxel PLGAPEG GL2 docetaxel PLA PEG GL2 docetaxel PGA PEG GL2 docetaxel PLGAPEG-DSPE GL1 docetaxel PLA PEG-DSPE GL1 docetaxel PGA PEG-DSPE GL1docetaxel PLGA PEG-DSPE GL2 docetaxel PLA PEG-DSPE GL2 docetaxel PGAPEG-DSPE GL2 doxorubicin PLGA PEG GL1 doxorubicin PLA PEG GL1doxorubicin PGA PEG GL1 doxorubicin PLGA PEG GL2 doxorubicin PLA PEG GL2doxorubicin PGA PEG GL2 doxorubicin PLGA PEG-DSPE GL1 doxorubicin PLAPEG-DSPE GL1 doxorubicin PGA PEG-DSPE GL1 doxorubicin PLGA PEG-DSPE GL2doxorubicin PLA PEG-DSPE GL2 doxorubicin PGA PEG-DSPE GL2 gemcitabinePLGA PEG GL1 gemcitabine PLA PEG GL1 gemcitabine PGA PEG GL1 gemcitabinePLGA PEG GL2 gemcitabine PLA PEG GL2 gemcitabine PGA PEG GL2 gemcitabinePLGA PEG-DSPE GL1 gemcitabine PLA PEG-DSPE GL1 gemcitabine PGA PEG-DSPEGL1 gemcitabine PLGA PEG-DSPE GL2 gemcitabine PLA PEG-DSPE GL2gemcitabine PGA PEG-DSPE GL2 5-fluorouracil PLGA PEG GL1 5-fluorouracilPLA PEG GL1 5-fluorouracil PGA PEG GL1 5-fluorouracil PLGA PEG GL25-fluorouracil PLA PEG GL2 5-fluorouracil PGA PEG GL2 5-fluorouracilPLGA PEG-DSPE GL1 5-fluorouracil PLA PEG-DSPE GL1 5-fluorouracil PGAPEG-DSPE GL1 5-fluorouracil PLGA PEG-DSPE GL2 5-fluorouracil PLAPEG-DSPE GL2 5-fluorouracil PGA PEG-DSPE GL2 paclitaxel PLGA PEG GL1paclitaxel PLA PEG GL1 paclitaxel PGA PEG GL1 paclitaxel PLGA PEG GL2paclitaxel PLA PEG GL2 paclitaxel PGA PEG GL2 paclitaxel PLGA PEG-DSPEGL1 paclitaxel PLA PEG-DSPE GL1 paclitaxel PGA PEG-DSPE GL1 paclitaxelPLGA PEG-DSPE GL2 paclitaxel PLA PEG-DSPE GL2 paclitaxel PGA PEG-DSPEGL2 daunorubicin PLGA PEG GL1 daunorubicin PLA PEG GL1 daunorubicin PGAPEG GL1 daunorubicin PLGA PEG GL2 daunorubicin PLA PEG GL2 daunorubicinPGA PEG GL2 daunorubicin PLGA PEG-DSPE GL1 daunorubicin PLA PEG-DSPE GL1daunorubicin PGA PEG-DSPE GL1 daunorubicin PLGA PEG-DSPE GL2daunorubicin PLA PEG-DSPE GL2 daunorubicin PGA PEG-DSPE GL2

Example 4 Small Molecule Targeting Moiety Mediated Binding/Uptake ofNano-Particles in LNcap Cells

The binding and uptake of nanoparticles (NP-GL1, NP-GL2) with surfacebound ligands GL1 (based on Glutamic Acid/4-Amino-phenylalanine) and GL2(based on Glutamic Acid/Lysine) by high PSMA expressing LNCap cells wastested by comparison with bare PLGA-PEG nano-particles (NP) as negativecontrol and amine-terminated A10 prostate-specific membrane antigen(PSMA) aptamer (Apt)-bearing NP's (NP-Apt) as positive control. NP-GL1,NP-GL2, NP, and NP-Apt uptake by LNCap cells and low PSMA expressing PC3cells were compared to evaluate specific PSMA mediated binding/uptake ofthe NP-GL1, NP-GL2.

Materials:

Diblock copolymer PLGA_(0.67)-PEG₅₀₀₀-CO₂H (50 mg/ml stock solution inACN); Aptamer (1 mg/mL); Glutamic acid/Phenyl Alanine based Ligand(GL1); Glutamic acid/Lysine based Ligand (GL2); EDC. HCl (PierceBiotech); SulfoNHS (Pierce Biotech), Phosphate Buffered Saline, PBS(Sigma); Fixation buffer: freshly prepared 4% formaldehyde in PBS;Blocking solution: freshly prepared 1% BSA in PBS; Blocking andpermeabilization solution: freshly prepared 0.1 Triton X100 in blockingsolution. Alexa-568 phalloidin (5 U/mL), NBD Cholesterol (Invitrogen);DAPI (Sigma): 0.1 mg/mL; Vectashield (Vector Labs); Nail polish.

Nanoparticle Preparation:

Nanoparticles based on PLGA-PEG-CO₂H diblock copolymers were prepared bythe nano-precipitation method. GL1, GL2 and Apt were covalently bound tothe carboxylic acid terminus of the nano-particle PEG corona in aqueousPBS suspension. Covalent conjugation of GL1, GL2 and Apt to NP's wasbased on EDC/NHS activation of the carboxylic acid PEG terminus andsubsequent reaction of the active succiniimide ester end groups with theamine functionality on GL1, GL2 and Apt using the following procedure:

PLGA-PEG-CO₂H stock solution (1.2 mL, 50 mg/mL solution in acetonitrile)was diluted with acetonitrile to yield 6 ml of 10 mg/mL diblocksolution. NBD Cholesterol (600 uL, 1 mg/mL solution in DMF) was added tothe above diblock solution and the mixture added drop wise to 12 mL ofstirred De-ionized water (18 MΩ). The resulting NP suspension wasallowed to stir (400 rpm) open in a fume hood for 2 hr and subsequentlypurified by ultra-filtration using re-generated cellulose based AmiconFilters (MWCO 5000 Da) to remove residual acetonitrile, DMF andun-encapsulated NBD as follows. NP suspension (16 mL) was transferred infour equal portions to four 15 mL Amicon Centrifugal Filtration tubesand concentrated to 250-400 uL each (5000 g×10 minutes). Theconcentrated suspensions were diluted with DI water (3 mL) and similarlyconcentrated (200-300 uL each) prior to being reconstituted into SterilePBS (1.5 mL each).

The resulting four 10 mg/mL NP suspensions were subsequently treated asfollows:

NP formulation with no targeting surface bound Ligand (NP, 10 mg/mL NPsuspension) was used from above with no further treatment. 100 uL perwell NP was used in the cell uptake study.

NP-GL1 and NP-GL2 formulations were prepared by activation of thecarboxylic acid terminus of the PEG corona using a 1 mL sterile PBSsolution of EDC/NHS (1.9 mg/mL, 2.2 mg/mL, 20 equivalent w.r.t. CO₂H)for 15 minutes at room temperature and subsequent coupling to GL1 andGL1 (1 mL sterile PBS solutions, 3.5 mg/mL and 3.1 mg/mL, respectively)after quenching (3 minutes) un-reacted EDC using 2-mercaptoethanol (2.8uL, 4 equivalents w.r.t. EDC). NP-GL1 and NP-GL2 were concentrated 14fold by ultra-filtration and subsequently re-constituted into sterilePBS each (9 mg/mL NP suspension). 100 uL per well NP-GL1 and NP-GL2 wereused in the cell uptake study.

NP-Apt formulation was prepared by a one-pot EDC/NHS activation (75mg/45 mg, 200 equivalents w.r.t. CO₂H) and Apt coupling (150 ug Apt)followed by purification by 15 fold concentration and re-dispersion inDI H2O (thrice) using ultra-filtration in Amicon Centrifuge Filters(MWCO 5000 Da). The final concentrate was reconstituted into 1.6 mLsterile PBS (9 mg/mL NP suspension) and 100 uL per well NP-Apt was usedin the cell uptake study.

NP Uptake and Staining: Day 0

Plated ˜30,000 cells/well on 8 well chamber slides. If cells lookedhealthy after 8-16 hrs, NP binding and uptake protocol was conducted. Ifnot, the cells were incubated longer (˜24 h total) allowing them toadhere and spread; the monolayer should be ˜50% confluent.

Day 1 Side Design: 4 Conditions.

Slide 1: LNCaP Vacant GL1-NP NP Apt-NP NP on LNCaP Vacant GL1-NP NPApt-NP

Slide 2: PC3 Vacant GL1-NP NP Apt-NP NP on PC3 Vacant GL1-NP NP Apt-NP

Media in all wells was replaced with 300 μl of fresh media supplementedwith 10% FBS per well. 100 μL per well of NP solution (500 μg NP perwell) in PBS was added. Slides were incubated for 30 min at 37° C. andwashed 3× gently with PBS. The cells were fixed with freshly madefixation buffer for 30 min at RT, then washed gently with PBS 2×1 min.Cells were incubated with the blocking/permeabilization buffer for 1 hrat RT. Cells were then stained with Alexa-Fluor 568 Phalloidin in theblocking/permeabilization buffer at RT for 1 hr and washed with PBS 3×5min with gentle shaking 100 μL DAPI (0.1 mg/mL) per well was added andincubated for 15 minutes at RT and washed 3× with PBS. 1 drop ofVectashield per well was added and slides were mounted with a glasscover slip. The cover slip was sealed with clear nail polish.

Samples were kept protected from light in the refrigerator.

Microscopy:

Slides were imaged using an inverted Leica microscope, equipped with a60× oil-immersion objective. Intensity set at 10% for NBD and Alexa, and1% for DAPI. Exposure times were 0.05 sec for DAPI, 1 sec for NBD and0.5 sec for Alexa. Images were taken at 0.5 um increments for 70sections along the z axis. All images were then merged and deconvolvedusing Softworx.

Image Analysis:

After processing, the images shown in FIG. 4 were obtained. These imagesshow the differences between the experimental conditions. The greencolor shows the location of the nanoparticles, the red stains the actinin the cytoskeleton and the blue stain shows the nucleus. The prevalenceof the green stain in the NP-GL1-LNCaP well indicates that the GL iseffective in binding to PSMA and that NP-GL1 nano-particles are readilybeing taken up by the cells. The lack of significant green staining inthe NP wells indicates that the particles are not being non-specificallyendocytosed by the cells.

Example 5 Amphiphilic Layer Encapsulated Target Specific Nanoparticle

An amphiphilic layer encapsulated target specific nanoparticle can beprepared using the following procedure. As noted above, the amphiphiliclayer can reduce water penetration into the nanoparticle, therebyenhancing drug encapsulation efficiency and slowing drug release.

1) Amphiphilic Layer:

Weigh out 10 mg lecithin soybean (MP Biomedicals, LLC: 1-800-854-0530,www.mpbio.com) in a glovebox in a 20 mL scintillation vial and dissolvein 10 mL H₂O+4% EtOH to get a 1 mg/ml solution.

2) Non Fluorescent Polymer:

Weigh out 6 mg PLGA-Ester terminal Polymer [DURECT Corporation(205)-620-0025, LACTEL® Absorbable Polymers; 50:50Poly(DL-lactide-co-glycolide), Ester Terminal; Inherent Viscosity Range:0.76-0.94 dL/g in HFIP; Store at ≦−10° C. as crystals. Moisturesensitive. Open after bottle has warmed up] in a glovebox into 7 mLscintillation vial. Add 0.6 mL ACN for final conc of 10 mg/mL. Vortex tomix.

3) DSPE-PEG-OME:

Weigh out 10 mg of PEG [AVANTI® Polar Lipids, Inc.;www.avantilipids.com;1,2-Distearoyl-sn-Glycero-3-Phosphoethanolamine-N-[methoxy(PolyethyleneGlycol)2000] (Ammonium Salt) 880120P; MW: 2805.54] is weighed out in aglovebox into a 10 mL scintillation vial. Add 10 mL 4% EtOH DI H2O forfinal concentration of 1 mg/mL. Vortex to mix.

Protocol (Make 5 Mg Batches at 5 Mg/Ml PLGA) Per NP Batch:

-   1) Lipid mixture: prepare each in 7 mL scintillation vial

a) Lipid solution:

Lecithin (1 mg/ml) 0.35 mg or 0.35 mL DSPE-PEG (1 mg/ml) or DSPE-PEG-GL20.15 mg or 0.15 mL H₂O + 4% ethanol 1.5 mL

-   2) Add stir-bar and stir;-   3) PLGA solutions: aliquot in 7 mL scintillation vials;

b) PLGA solution:

PLGA 0.5 mL ACN 0.5 mL

a. Vortex;

-   4) Heat lipid mixture at 68° C. for ˜3-4 min;-   5) Add PLGA drop-wise while heating lipids;-   6) Vortex for 3 min;-   7) Add 1 mL DI H₂O drop-wise, stirring. (total volume: 4 mL);-   8) Stir for 2 h with cap open at room temperature;-   9) Transfer to dialysis cassette (PIERCE Slide-A-Lyzer 10K MWCO    Dialysis Cassettes) for 3 h in 1000-fold H₂O;-   10) Change dialysis buffer at 1 hour, 2 hour, and 3 hours;-   11) During dialysis, prepare 5 vol % Tween 80 buffer (100 mL) for    freezing nanoparticle with 0.5 vol % Tween 80;-   12) Prepare/label Amicon tubes;-   13) After dialysis, remove aliquot (1.0 mg) for size and zeta    potential measurements;-   14) Use Amicon filter (AMICON®Ultra-15 Ultracel 10K Cat #: UFC8    010 96) to spin ˜3× at 4000 rpm for 10 min to concentrate to 1 ml,    topping off with PBS;-   15) Remove 1.0 mg aliquot from each batch and measure size and zeta    potential;-   16) Aliquot 3.0 mg of each batch into eppendorf tubes;-   17) Add Tween to 0.5 vol % into epp tubes for each batch;-   18) Flash freeze tubes in liquid N2 and place in freezer.

EQUIVALENTS

Those skilled in the art will recognize, or be able to ascertain usingno more than routine experimentation, many equivalents to the specificembodiments of the invention described herein. Such equivalents areintended to be encompassed by the following claims.

INCORPORATION BY REFERENCE

The entire contents of all patents, published patent applications,websites, and other references cited herein are hereby expresslyincorporated herein in their entireties by reference.

What is claimed:
 1. A nanoparticle comprising: (a) a chemotherapeuticagent; (b) a diblock copolymer of poly(ethylene glycol) and polylacticacid; and (c) a prostate specific membrane antigen ligand conjugated toa diblock copolymer of poly(ethylene glycol) and polylactic acid,wherein the prostate specific membrane antigen ligand has the structure


2. The nanoparticle of claim 1 having a diameter in the range of 80 nmto 200 nm.
 3. The nanoparticle of claim 1 wherein the chemotherapeuticagent is paclitaxel, docetaxel, mitoxandrone, doxorubicin, gemcitabine,5-fluorouracil, daunorubicin or 9-dihydrotaxol.
 4. The nanoparticle ofclaim 3 wherein the chemotherapeutic agent is paclitaxel, docetaxel or9-dihydrotaxol.
 5. The nanoparticle of claim 4 wherein thechemotherapeutic agent is paclitaxel.
 6. A pharmaceutical compositioncomprising (a) a plurality of nanoparticles, wherein each nanoparticlecomprises: a. a chemotherapeutic agent; b. a diblock copolymer ofpoly(ethylene glycol) and polylactic acid; and c. a prostate specificmembrane antigen ligand conjugated to a diblock copolymer ofpoly(ethylene glycol) and polylactic acid, wherein the prostate specificmembrane antigen ligand has the structure

 and (b) a pharmaceutically acceptable carrier.
 7. The pharmaceuticalcomposition of claim 6 wherein the nanoparticles have a diameter of 80nm to 200 nm.
 8. The pharmaceutical composition of claim 6 wherein thechemotherapeutic agent is paclitaxel, docetaxel, mitoxandrone,doxorubicin, gemcitabine, 5-fluorouracil, daunorubicin or9-dihydrotaxol.
 9. The pharmaceutical composition of claim 6 wherein thechemotherapeutic agent is paclitaxel, docetaxel or 9-dihydrotaxol. 10.The pharmaceutical composition of claim 6 wherein the chemotherapeuticagent is paclitaxel.
 11. A method of treating a solid tumor cancer in asubject in need thereof, comprising systemically administering to thesubject a therapeutically effective amount of the pharmaceuticalcomposition of claim
 6. 12. The method of claim 11 wherein the particlesare administered by parenteral administration.
 13. The method of claim11 wherein the parenteral administration is intravenous or subcutaneousadministration.
 14. The method of claim 11 wherein the cancer isprostate cancer.
 15. The method of claim 11 wherein the cancer isnon-small cell lung cancer.
 16. The method of claim 11 wherein thecancer is colorectal cancer or glioblastoma.
 17. The method of claim 11wherein the nanoparticles have a diameter of 80 nm to 200 nm.
 18. Themethod of claim 11 wherein the chemotherapeutic agent is paclitaxel,docetaxel, mitoxandrone, doxorubicin, gemcitabine, 5-fluorouracil,daunorubicin or 9-dihydrotaxol.
 19. The method of claim 11 wherein thechemotherapeutic agent is paclitaxel, docetaxel or 9-dihydrotaxol. 20.The method of claim 11 wherein the chemotherapeutic agent is paclitaxel.